Modern English speech variability in Russia Текст научной статьи по специальности «Языкознание и литературоведение»

УДК 811.111'34

В. В. Потапов

доктор филологических наук, главный научный сотрудник НИР каф. прикладной и экспериментальной лингвистики факультета английского языка МГЛУ; ст. научный сотрудник филологического факультета МГУ; е-таЛ: voLikpotapov@gmaiL.com

СОВРЕМЕННАЯ АНГЛИЙСКАЯ РЕЧЕВАЯ ВАРИАТИВНОСТЬ

В РОССИИ1

Активно разрабатываемые в отечественной лингвистике проблемы в области вариативности звучащей английской речи приблизительно в течение последних двух десятилетий нуждаются в закономерном осмыслении и интерпретации причин своего развития. В статье представлен материал результатов исследований российских лингвистов XXI века в области произносительной вариативности, которую необходимо рассматривать как с учетом интралингвистических, так и экстралингвистических факторов. На каждом этапе развития языка и его национальных вариантов наиболее стойкие инновации, находящиеся за пределами нормы, но не противоречащие законам языкового развития, в ближайшем будущем могут стать предметом общего узуса и перейти в категорию нормативных и кодифицированных.

Ключевые слова: английская речь; фонетическая вариативность; региональные варианты; восточноазиатский английский язык; интралингвистические и экстралингвистические факторы; нормативное и кодифицированное употребление.

V. V. Potapov

D. Sc. Chief Researcher, Department of AppLied and Experimental Linguistics, Institute of AppLied and Mathematical Linguistics, FacuLty of the Humanities and AppLied Sciences of Moscow State Linguistic University (MSLU); Senior Researcher, FacuLty of PhiLoLogy, Lomonosov Moscow State University; e-maiL: voLikpotapov@gmaiL.com

MODERN ENGLISH SPEECH VARIABILITY IN RUSSIA2

The probLems in the fieLd of variabiLity of spoken EngLish Language activeLy deveLoped in the Russian Linguistics for about the Last two decades need a LogicaL understanding and interpretation of the reasons for their deveLopment. This paper presents the materiaL of the Russian 21st century Linguists' research resuLts in the fieLd of pronunciation variabiLity, which shouLd be considered both with regard to intralinguistic and extralinguistic factors. At each stage of the deveLopment of the

1 Исследование поддержано Российским Научным Фондом (РНФ). Проект № 1818-00477.

2 This research is supported by the Russian Science Foundation, Project № 18-1800477.

Language and its national, variants, the most stable innovations that are beyond the norm, but not inconsistent with the Laws of Language development, can become a common usage object and move into the category of normative and codified ones in the near future.

Key words: English spoken Language; phonetic variability; regionaL variants; East Asian EngLish; intraLinguistic and extraLinguistic factors; normative and codified usage.

1. Introduction

Variability, like constancy, is an essential property of the language structure conditioned by its very nature and purpose: without it, no language could exist and evolve. Variability is manifested at all language levels and in their units depending on the specifics of the problem in question. Analysis of the language structure from this position in synchrony and diachrony is an important task of fundamental linguistics, as well as applied linguistics including a detailed study of individual languages and their comparison.

The problem of the norm, the normativity (and in this respect one can be speak of the variability) in the language has its roots in antiquity (see: (Каспранский 1990) referring to the book [Десницкая, Кацнельсон 1980]). In considering the norm, two aspects of this problem appear to be important:

[...] first, the norm as an intra-linguistic category associated with the presence of potential possibilities for designating the same phenomenon represented by language as a system; while the norm is also the result of a number of social factors determined by the existence of a given language in a certain speech collective in a certain period of time; and, secondly, the norm as the awareness of certain means of linguistic expression as correct and exemplary ones and as prescription of their use (that is codification)1 [Вербицкая 1993, p. 8]2.

1 «.Во-первых, норма как внутриязыковая категория, связанная с наличием потенциальных возможностей обозначения одного и того же явления, представляемых языком как системой; при этом норма - результат действия ряда социальных факторов, определяемых существованием данного языка в определенном речевом коллективе в определенный период времени; и, во-вторых, норма как осознание тех или иных средств языкового выражения в качестве правильных, образцовых и предписывание их употребления (это кодификация)».

2 See also: [Вербицкая 2001; Вербицкая 2002].

The norm is a "system of mandatory manifestations": it corresponds to what is already said by tradition and includes models already implemented, i.e. the norm "corresponds to the fixation of the language in traditional forms" ([Косериу 1963, p. 185].

Variability is an indispensable feature of the language, it is determined and imposed by the language. Phonetic variability1, for example, is due to a certain position of the phoneme in the word, the influence of the quality of the surrounding sounds, the place in relation to the stress, and also the individual features of the utterance at any given moment [...]2 [Вербицкая 1993, p. 11].

When examining the problem of the norm and variability in the English language, Russian researchers turn to the approaches of analyzing linguistic (phonetic) changes and their causes from the viewpoint of the British and American phonological schools, first of all (see, for example, (Медведева, 2015)). British scientist A. Gimson (1980) and his successor A. Cruttenden (2001) dwell on the problem of sound changes in their works.

In American linguistics, the theory of phonetic changes was developed by W. Labov (2006). W. Labov assessed each kind of change based on the causes that produced it; and these causes are called by W. Labov the principles of language changes3 (for more information, see [Медведева 2015]). Summarizing the causes of phonetic changes, W. Labov speaks about their multidimensionality (including the physical, psychological and social phenomena of all these changes), with each change having its own specific set of causes.

The modern model of the social characteristics of language and speech includes mutually conditioned and interdependent phenomena

1 The phonetic variation of the sound matter of the language has a direct relation also to the solution of the task of identifying the speaker by voice and speech, which is complicated by the application of a wide range of methods [Потапова, Потапов 2011]. Scientific research in this field of knowledge is conducted in the following areas: intra-individual variability of speech parameters of the speaker and inter-individual parameters of the speakers' spoken language.

2 «Вариативность - обязательная черта языка, она определяется языком, навязывается им. Фонетическая вариативность, например, обусловлена определенной позицией фонемы в слове, влиянием качества окружающих звуков, местом по отношению к ударению, а также индивидуальными особенностями произнесения в каждый данный момент...».

3 The principle of economy was developed long before W. Labov by the French linguist A. Martinet [Martinet 1955].

associated with the formation of speech codes of the speakers under the influence of the social structure of the whole society (stratification by social strata, groups, etc.), social relations (for example, sociocultural, situational) between communication participants, as well as physiological, psychological and intellectual features of the communicants themselves [Потапова, Потапов 2011].

Such a model assumes that the system of language rules is taken into account at all language levels, i.e. this phenomenon is associated with lexical, syntactic and phonetic planning strategies in the individual's behavior. Sociolinguistics also addresses the differentiation ofthe language functioning in a certain ethnolinguistic community by social groups of the speakers and social strata of the population, taking into account the professional and class variants of the given language, that is, taking into account its functional styles (variants) [Потапова, Потапов 2006; Потапова, Потапов 2011]. One can also talk about the presence of certain trends in phonetic variability, which is associated with: the communicants' type of higher nervous activity, the level of their upbringing, the level of their preparation to use their knowledge [Потапова, Потапов 2011].

Thus, ".modern linguistics considers variability as an objective immanent feature of the linguistic system affecting all the subsystems and units singled out in the language in terms of their form and content, in synchrony and diachrony, as well as intrasystem relations and relations of the type language - the external world"1 [Вишневская 2013, p. 122].

Since the second half of XXth century, English has become the universal language of people of various countries and cultures. The English language is a kind of lingua franca, the modern international language. This phenomenon has its own causes and consequences. English not only affects other languages, but is greatly affected itself (see [Crystal 1998; Kirkpatrik 2002; Kirkpatrik 2010; McArthur 2002; Schneider 2007; Опарина 2015; Раренко 2015; Сескутова 2015; Шевченко 2015] and others).

It should be noted [Потапов 2014] that, since 1660 (after the restoration of the English monarchy) and for 50 years, several unsuccessful attempts

1 «.современная лингвистика рассматривает вариативность как объективное имманентное свойство языковой системы, затрагивающее все выделяемые в языке подсистемы и единицы в плане формы и содержания, в синхронии и диахронии, а также внутрисистемные отношения и отношения язык - внешний мир.»

have been made to found the Academy for the standardization of the English language. However, in the XVIII century, there were works on grammar, which provided a huge contribution to the unification of the English language. Since these early attempts, the number of grammarians and scholars' works has increased significantly; the main content of them was the condemnation of certain word usage. Consequently, these studies served as some beginning of the development of the language norm (for more details, see: [repMaHOBa 2016]).

Currently, a large number of English dialects and a number of languages are common in the British Isles (see, for example, [Kirkpatrick 2010]). Welsh, Scottish and Irish languages belong to the Celtic group of languages. In the United States, there are four dialect zones, within which full-fledged dialects are distinguished, determined by bundles of isoglosses and the nature of the sound changes occurring in them1. The border with Canada does not correspond to any linguistic border; there is a strong American influence everywhere, which is less noticeable only in the coastal provinces. The Australian variant of the English language is used in the Australasian region (Australasia). Many words have changed their meaning; there are many borrowings from aboriginal languages, especially those used to describe concepts of the Australian reality.

In India, English remains an alternative or additional language for Hindi, as well as the language of science. In South Africa, English is the official language along with the Afrikaans language, from which it borrowed many words. English is the official language in many multilingual countries of Central Africa (the territories of which are adjacent to the Sahara), although it strongly competes with the languages of the indigenous peoples of these countries.

"Like the norms of the codified literary language, the norms of literary and colloquial speech are a socio-historical concept applicable to a specific communicative situation of a given country. Linguists' observations give some reason to believe, for example, that the linguistic norms of the Standard Educated Colloquial English (SECE) in the UK as a whole are more stringent than those of the General American English in the US

1 See, for example: A national map of the regional dialects of American English. URL : www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/NationalMap/NationalMap.html#Heading2 (Access date: June 10, 2018).

and, in particular, in comparison with the General Australian English and Broad Australian English"1 [Орлов 1991, p. 22-23].

Regional variants in the UK2 have cultural significance and great piety, playing to some extent a role not less important than the literary norm, and, since the person identification problem is challenging in the country, the classification of phonetic features allowing clearly definition of the status of a regional standard is a necessary part of linguistic research.

The idea of the interrelation between social and territorial variation (Ярцева, 1969; Маковский, 1982; Швейцер, 1982; 1983; Шевченко, 1988; 1990; 2013; 2015; Шахбагова, 1992; Trudgill, 1974; 2002), etc.) is confirmed by studies of English.

In the opinion of T. I. Shevchenko (2015), the following issues in the field of normality and variability in diachrony and synchrony are very important in English studies: the system of national variants of the English language, taking into account their phonetic and phonological features of national and social identity; the main factors that determine the national specifics of the social context in each country: the time the English language appeared in new territories, the social composition and geographic affiliation of the native speakers, contacts with other languages and cultures, the stages of formation and the assignment of the basic national status to a new pronunciation variant.

Acomparison ofthe British (see, for example, [Wells 1986; Lowry 1997; Grabe 2004; Grabe, Post 2002] and others) and the American3 variants (see, for example, [Clopper 2010] and others) of the phonological system is the most developed (in the linguistic literature) part of the system description of all variants, starting with the normative ones on a global scale that

1 «Как и нормы кодифицированного литературного языка, нормы литературно-разговорной речи - понятие социально-историческое, применимое к конкретной коммуникативной ситуации данной страны. Наблюдения лингвистов дают некоторое основание полагать, например, что языковые нормы Standard Educated Colloquial English (SECE) в Великобритании в целом являются более строгими, чем нормы General American English в США и особенно в сопоставлении с нормами General Australian English и Broad Australian English.»

2 In the domestic linguistics at the junction of the 70-80s of the XXth century a direction for research of English "regional variability" appeared that was initiated by A. S. Lieberman (see, for example, works [Малова 1980; Майчинская 1979; Шин 1982], etc.).

3 The American version of the English language is described in such domestic works as [Швейцер 1971; Швейцер 1994; Швейцер 1995].

covers the pronunciation of vowels (see, for example, [Медведева 1998] and others), consonants and intonation1 (see, for example, [Шахбагова 1982; Фесенко 1984] and others).

The study [Шевченко, 2015] of a national phonetic-phonological identity is based on the study of the typology of variants of the English language phonological system. It describes the models for the formation of national variants in the English language and the phonology of the three diasporas (cited from T.I. Shevchenko), depending on the time of the formation of a new variant, the social context and contacts with other languages and cultures, which is closely related to our term - three circles of the English language functioning.

Within the first circle of the English language functioning on the territory of the British Isles (Wales, Ireland, Scotland, England), according to the British, there are four "nations" (by ethnicity): English, Scots, Irish and Welsh. The national identity of Scotland, Wales and Ireland, including the uniqueness of Northern Ireland in the UK, is preserved due to a number of features of the phonological system of the English language in these regions that is conditioned by language contacts with the original Celtic languages of the population.

The nature of the variability of English phonology in the countries of the second circle of the English language functioning (USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa) depends on the same social factors: the time when the English-speaking population moved to new territories, the initial habitation region of English speakers and language contacts.

To a much greater extent, the influence of the indigenous languages of the countries that were freed from the British colonial domination is expressed in the group ofthe third circle of the English languagefunctioning2 (Nigeria, India, Singapore, Hong Kong). In the opinion of T. I. Shevchenko,

1 For example, according to the famous creator of the English grammar book R. Murphy, "Traditionally, when we speak English, we end the sentence by lowering the voice tone. But recently, - and, perhaps, this feature came from Australia or America - people began to raise the voice tone at the end of the sentence during the conversation. In news broadcasts of broadcast corporations, this, of course, is not yet observable" [Мёрфи 2016, p. 11]. On the American influence on the British pronunciation norm at the segment level, see, for example, [Гришина 2001] and others.

2 In this respect, the works of the famous Australian linguist E. Kirkpatrick on the functioning of English in the Asia-Pacific region are indicative [Kirkpatrick 2002; Kirkpatrick 2010; Kirkpatrick 2012] and others.

the initial forms in these territories were the interfered "naturalized" forms of pronunciation. Sometimes they are referred to as glocal meaning the combined impact of the global international communication in English (from Eng. global) and local interfered forms (Eng. local).

According to T. I. Shevchenko (2015), the determining factors of variation and creation of the identity of each particular type of pronunciation are the following parameters of the social context: the time of appearance of the English language in a new territory, which is an indicator of a certain stage of development of the linguistic norm in England, the initial habitation region and social composition of native speakers, the impact of contacting languages and cultures. Time is essential for the description also because it is associated with the standardization and assimilation of English by the population of a particular country. For example, the models of the English language spreading on a global scale based on data from projects in the US and the UK are estimated by T. I. Shevchenko (2013) taking into account their explanatory power in relation to the current state of language and intercultural communication in English.

Due to the large flow of immigrants to the UK, the address of Russian linguists to the problem of the possible influence of ethnic groups on the British pronunciation standard appears relevant and timely [Медведева, Безбородова 2015]. The results of this study showed that this immigration to the UK is not able to radically change the existing system of the British pronunciation standard due to the insignificant share of migrants' involvement in the process of forming new pronunciation variants of the English language.

And now we should dwell upon the study of the peculiarities of phonetic variability of various variants of the English language revealed by Russian linguists.

2. Phonetic variability of the English language functioning on the territory of the British Isles

For the modern vowel system of the British English variant, some changes are typical that occur, for example, in the sound system of the South English regional type of pronunciation - Estuary English (EE) [Медведева 2001]. Т. V. Medvedeva's perceptual-auditory analysis of a number of vowel sounds in the modern Received Pronunciation (RP) and EE and in Cockney confirmed the fact that there are significant

differences in the sound of vowels in both EE and RP, and Cockney. According to the specialists in experimental phonetics, EE forms an appropriate model, which is characteristic of educated Englishmen belonging to the middle class of British society. This model of EE "turns" into a kind of independent type of pronunciation in the southern region of England [Медведева 2002].

Over the past ten years, results have been obtained that indicate a qualitative change in the British vocal system of youth speech over the past 40-45 years, which contributes to a more profound understanding of the dynamics of the pronunciation norm of the British English language as a whole [Мурай 2001; Мурай 2005].

O.V. Murai proves the existence of significant modifications of vowel sounds in the accented position in continuous speech. The consonant environment determines the positional variability of English vowels. In this case, the characteristics of the previous consonant affect the location of the vowel allophones in the plane of the phonetic space to varying degrees.

Modifications of the vowel are manifested in the reduction of the quantitative component of the acoustic complex and changes in quality in the form of variation in the row (horisontal) and height (vertical) without transition to a neutral vowel.

In recent years, attempts have been made to determine the vocal component of the "Youth norm of Received Pronunciation (RP)" [Без-бородова 2014, p. 9]. The obtained results confirmed that the frequency characteristics of a number of vowels in the speech of educated Englishmen underwent varying degrees of variation.

For the convenience of determining the conditional borders of the "Youth norm of RP", all trends of vocal changes in youth speech revealed in this study, are conditionally divided by M. V. Bezborodova on "settled", "innovative" and "old-fashioned".

All the trends of vocal changes revealed during this study and marked by A. Cruttenden (2001) as "fully completed" and "established" are assigned in the author's gradation to settled ones and those "newly arisen", "innovations on the verge of RP", as well as the phenomenon with no certain evaluation - to innovative ones. The cases of vowels "returning" in their implementations to the conservative RP (called "old fashioned RP" by A. Gimson (1980)) were classified as old-fashioned. This "return" is considered a kind of innovation for the current state of the vowel system.

M. V. Bezborodova's comparison of results of perceptive-auditory and acoustic analysis (2014) of the realizations of English vowels in the speech of young Britons with the frequency characteristics of the RP vowels published by A. Cruttenden in 2001, revealed that the frequency characteristics of a number of vowels in the speech of educated English people underwent varying degrees of change, namely, in the system of monophthongs, the changes affected /i:/, /1/, /е/, /ш/, /о/, /э:/, /и/ and /и:/; in the diphthong system, the nuclei /ei/, /ai/, /01/, /эи/, /аи/, /иэ/, and some glides - /ai/, /01/, /аи/ и /иэ/. In conclusion, M.V. Bezborodova notes that 8 monophthongs, 5 nuclear elements of diphthongs and 4 diphthong glide elements were subjected to changes in the speech of men, as well as 7 monophthongs, 6 nuclear elements of diphthongs and 3 glide elements in the speech of women.

The aim of the study described in the paper [Степкина, 2011] is to find out, on the basis of the British English material, how far the gender1 features of the phonetic side of speech described in sufficient detail for adults, are present in the prosodic and intonational formulation of the speech of young people of student age. The results of I. Ju. Stepkina's research showed that gender stereotypes are already quite pronounced in the speech of youth of student age. The average value of the fundamental frequency (FF) in the speech of young women is above the mean FF value in the speech of young men. The greater determination to the sound of male speech is given by the dominance of short syntagms, and, correspondingly, by a greater number of descending tones. In the speech of young women there is a greater variety of tones and scales, which makes their speech more diverse. The FF range in the young women's speech is wider, and they use the lower register more often than young men. Young men tend to change the volume level to emphasize the rheme in the sentence with a relatively smooth tone movement.

The paper [Безбородова 2013] is devoted to the influence of age and gender, the basic constituents of the sociolect, on the variability of the vocal component of the British pronunciation standard (Received Pronunciation (RP), or, as it is increasingly called, BBC-English). The author analyzed the speech of informants speaking in the British pronunciation standard - inhabitants of the South-East of England belonging

1 For the gender variability in English-speaking countries, see, for example, such works as [Потапов 1997; Потапов 2002] and others.

to two youth age groups (18-25 and 26-39 years old), in order to detect the presence of common features characteristic for this age group, as well as special differences in the sound of vowels, taking into account the gender aspect. M. V. Bezborodova's study of the vocal component of the Englishmen (on the material of monophthongs) confirmed the use of innovative forms of pronunciation by informants of the two groups. In addition, the trends of changes in RP found in the young group of informants (18-25 years old), and especially in the speech of young men, also appear in the speech of the older group (26-39 years), but in smaller proportions.

All the data given by the author show that, despite the variability of pronunciation in all groups of informants, young people's speech approaches the pronunciation standard as they grow up, but is far from the standard.

Comparing the pronunciation trends of young people with regard to the gender factor, M. V. Bezborodova found that the speech of the young men demonstrated the most extreme modified forms of verbal behavior, and in the women's speech there is clearly a "gender paradox" noted earlier by W. Labov (2006). However, the changes in the speech of the women's group revealed by the author of this study, show that the image of a young educated woman is undergoing changes, and young women are more frequently copying male forms of behavior to establish their equal position in society. All of the above confirms the presence of a high degree of variability in the English phonetic system at the present stage [Безбородова 2013].

The paper [Медведева, Безбородова 2014] describes the influence of the gender factor on the mechanism of changes in the system of modern English vocalism (monophthongs and diphthongs) on the example of the speech of educated young Britons1.

The authors concluded that some of the pronunciation changes are introduced by women, some other - by men, and individual trends of variability of English vowels are common to both groups, which may serve as proof that these pronunciation features lose their gender marking and gradually become part of the modern standard. In general, according to Т. V. Medvedeva and M. V. Bezborodova (2014), men's speech can be regarded as a linguistic dominant, since male speech is characterized by

1 On the gender variability in the speech of British youth, see also [Медведева, Мурай 2007].

greater adaptability to natural articulatory processes. Men aspire to saving speech efforts; women, on the one hand, try to use more standard and traditional forms, but, on the other hand, they are more progressive, as they copy male pronunciation forms that are perspective, and also actively introduce innovative features into their speech.

An important aspect in the study of sociophonetic parameters in the first circle of the English language functioning is to identify the systemic, distributive and implemented characteristics of the Welsh variant of the English language in comparison with the intonation of the British literary pronunciation norms, which are manifested depending on social and personal characteristics of the people of Wales [Федотова 2011; Федотова 2013]. M. V. Fedotova's research of the intonation of the people of Wales led to the conclusion that the specific intonation forms existing in diglossic situations and conditioned by imposition of elements of the Welsh (Celtic) and English (standard) intonation systems are socially differentiated. The identity of the Welsh variant of the English language in the field of pronunciation is proved. The peculiarity of the modern language situation in Wales characterized by diglossia under the conditions of the language policy on the revival of the native language of the region, as well as changes in the views of the Welsh on the Welsh accent in the English language, is revealed. The research also revealed the national specifics of the melodic intonation, which is the frequency of use and the phonetic form of ascending-descending (ADT) and ascending (AT) terminal tones. Specific features of the tone configurations are revealed that are determined by the combination of the fundamental frequency (FF), intensity and duration, which provide the originality of the rhythm of the interfered speech. The degree of distinct manifestation of various intonation characteristics was determined (depending on the combination of a number of established social factors: regional, age, socioeconomic and gender) [Федотова 2011; Федотова 2013].

As for the gender factor in the variability of pronunciation, in M. V. Fedotova's opinion, the descending tone was dominant in both male and female speech, and AT was more characteristic of male speech. The regional marker, ADT, was equally observed in both groups. Consequently, the female speech has both the characteristics of Received Pronunciation (RP) expressed in the prevalence of descending tone in women's speech, and the features of the local variant (i.e., ADT).

When examining the index characteristics of Welsh intonation, three main melodic models were established corresponding to the expression of incompleteness [Федотова 2011; Федотова 2013]: AT, level and descending-ascending tones.

Scottish English holds a special place among all the variety of accents and dialects of the British Isles, representing a combination of Old English borrowings and unique dialectal grammatical constructions with "ordinary" English subjected to multiple phonetic modifications, which makes the concept of Scottish English itself very difficult to determine.

In this respect, attempts have been made to investigate various phonetic processes in the speech of speakers of the Scottish variant of the English language (see, for example, the regional variation in the intonation of English in Scotland [Скуланова 1984]). K. S. Kulikova (2015) found some specific characteristics in Scots' monologic speech. Perceptual-auditory and acoustic types of analysis made it possible for the author to reveal the characteristic features in spoken language of those speaking the standard Scottish variant of the English language in comparison with the carriers of the orthoepic norm of UK.

The results of the analysis obtained by K.S. Kulikova (2015) show the presence in all native speakers of all age groups of precisely those features that are characteristic of the standard Scottish pronunciation. All native speakers use the dark version of the phoneme /l/ in all positions in words and significantly reduce the degree of aspiration1 of voiceless explosives /p, t, k/ in all positions.

Realizations of vowels in the speech of native speakers of all groups are characterized by K. S. Kulikova as typical for Standard Scottish English (SSE). Phonetic processes found in the speech of those speaking the standard Scottish English show in a definite way that SSE has a set of specific sound modifications not inherent to any another variant of English [Куликова 2015].

Let us give an example taking into account the phonetic variability, which is caused by the rhythmic structure of the speech flow.

Rhythm in English studies is considered as a component of intonation associated with all its other components: melodics, loudness, tempo, timbre [Давыдов, Рубинова 1997]. Special attention is paid to the "behavior"

1 The process of pre-aspiration of fricatives in Scottish English is discussed in the work [Gordeeva, Scobbie 2010].

of accent models of polysyllabic words of the English language (see, for example, [Vishnevskaya 2007]) in the main spoken language styles (registers): lecture, fiction spoken language and pragmalinguistic style (see, for example, [Антипова 1984]). In this connection, of special importance is the problem of secondary stress in modern English, which for many years was one of the most pressing problems in numerous studies of specialists in English.

This problem may include a range of issues, among which the following may be attributed: what is the difference between models with secondary stresses and models in postposition (after the main stress); what is the difference in the modifications of these models depending on the style of speech?

The study of the fiction spoken language style allowed the authors to come to the following main conclusions [Давыдов, Рубинова 1997]. First, the more expressive prosody of this style of speech and the emergence of the timbral component in the foreground lead, in a number of cases, to the restructuring of accent models, the replacement of some accent models by some others. Secondly, these replacements do not go beyond the framework of the dictionary accent models or some changes (as, for example, the absence of the usual syllable salience). Thirdly, a very common case is the complete loss of the main stress or, more precisely, the shift of the main stress to the place of the secondary stress. This kind of shifts leads to a strengthening of the semantics of the corresponding adjectives.

The pragmalinguistic style [Давыдов, Рубинова 1997] includes cases ofutterance when the lecturer, for didactic purposes, deliberately transforms the normal accent structure of some words. The pragmalinguistic material is that part of the lecture style when the attention of the lecturer switches from the content to the form of certain words and word combinations: it is either about the phonemic appearance of the word or about its morphological composition or about its prosodic features (as a special case, about its accent structure).

In contrast to the lecture style of speech, where the main factors in changing accent patterns are the positions in the syntagma and the rhythmic pattern of the latter, in the pragmalinguistic style the word appears to be isolated from the rest of the text and its accent model depends on one or another pragmalinguistic setting of the speaker. Consequently, in the opinion of M. V. Davydov and O. S. Rubinova, the pragmalinguistic style

takes us beyond the usual accent patterns fixed in dictionaries. On examples of complex words of unstable type, there is a noticeable acceleration of the tempo both before the main stress and after it. This feature could be used to differentiate the prosodic feature of polysyllabic words, on the one hand, and word combinations, on the other. However, the number of unstressed syllables after a secondary stress is, as a rule, not so great that such a difference in the tempo could be clearly and undoubtedly fixed. The difference between words and phrases is revealed, nevertheless, with a logical or emphatic accentuation of the first word in the phrase: a high descending tone (or an ascending tone in the extended interval) cannot be realized at the place of the secondary stress; this is peculiar only to the main stress of the defining word in word combinations.

Thus, in the course of this study [Давыдов, Рубинова 1997], it became clear that stylistic modifications should be taken into account in any discussion of accent models. According to the authors, it is necessary to distinguish the modifications that have arisen in connection with the change in the speech tempo (public, ordinary, colloquial styles) and modifications associated with changes at the semantic level (pragmalinguistic style).

The paper [Старкина 2010] is devoted to the analysis of the qualities of the voice conveying the irony in spoken fiction texts in English. Speech variability, indicating the ability to some modification, is most clearly manifested in linguistic expression [Вишневская 2013]. Therefore, when conveying irony, the parameters of voice quality are considered in combination with lexical-grammatical and prosodic means.

The ironic prosody1 in English spoken language, according to O. A. Starkina (2010), is characterized by a descending-ascending tone with a low rise, or an ascending-descending tone, as well as contrasting (slowed or accelerated) tempo. Irony is also realized with the help of other linguistic means including: pun (play of words), repetition, understatement, understatement (concealment), figurative comparisons, paradox, allusion, evaluative words, linguistic units related to the low-spoken style. The realization of irony with the voice qualities directly depends on its types [Старкина 2010]. The most common kind of irony in the sounding text is clear irony, ridicule, which is characterized by increased loudness and clarity of pronunciation, tension of the vocal

1 For a key role of the traditional prosodic means in the irony realization, see [Королева 2008].

cords, variation in tempo and timbre. The latent irony is distinguished by a neutral prosodic and smoothed timbre tone. For irony with a touch of bantering a timbre of a smile is characteristic, as well as clear and dynamic voice. Bitter irony is expressed by muffled, aspirated, trembling voice with ironic coloring.

The paper [Шенберг 2010] is devoted to the problem of the pragmatic function of intonation (the category ofpoliteness). The sound side of speech, namely, the intonation of each individual speech act contains information about the speaker's features, their self-control, restraint or emotionality, which also affects the intonation pattern of the utterance and cannot but influence the degree of their politeness.

In the opinion of the author of the paper, melodics is the most indicative in acts of politeness, since the degree of politeness of an utterance depends both on the type of the melodic scale, and on the character of the terminal tone, and on the range of its realization. However, the remaining components of intonation are also important when creating the effect of a polite speech act; and, perhaps, in informal contexts, their role is more significant than that of the melodics. E.Ju. Shoenberg highlights the importance of the timbre component of intonation: the timbre of the overwhelming majority of utterances impolite from the native English speakers' point of view is characterized by phonetic experts as solid, while soft timbre is associated with politeness. Phrase Will you please sit down pronounced with a terminal descending tone, but in a soft voice, can be perceived as polite depending on other contextual details. The perceptive correlate of intensity - loudness - can also be a measure of politeness / impoliteness of an utterance. The characteristic features of polite speech are not only the specific tone of the voice, which is the most variable component of intonation, but also the moderate intensity, the slowed-down speech tempo and the calm, soft timbre of the voice [Шенберг 2010].

A detailed analysis of a large corpus of dramatic monologues with various topics made it possible for the author [Овсянникова 2010] to draw a conclusion that there is considerable variation in their realization regarding the use of melodic scales, terminal tones, as well as tempo, rhythm and timbre. The corresponding tones of the English language used in non-final intonation groups (low ascending, high ascending, level static, low ascending and descending-ascending) are characteristic not only of the formal style of speech, but also of the informal style presented by dramatic

monologues. In monologues, the percentage of using a high ascending tone is quite high [Овсянникова 2010].

The purpose of the study [Кожедуб 2009] relating to the field of forensic rhetoric (on the theory of rhetoric, see [Рождественский 1997; Меньшенина 2013] and others) is to identify the characteristics of prosodic organization of persuasion as a form of direct influence in a courtroom speech in the British variant of the English language, as well as the role of prosodic means in expressing illocutionary meanings with the perlocutive effect of persuasion in a courtroom speech.

As a result, taking into account the prosodic features that can be considered invariant for academic public speech, there are variable features that are a manifestation of the speaker's individual style1 [Фрейдина 2007, p. 185].

Prosodic characteristics are influenced in a similar way by the emotional state of the speaker, the suprasgmental characteristics of speech playing an important role in conveying the perlocutive effect of persuasion. In the opinion of N. V. Kozhedub, these characteristics associated with changes in the pitch, loudness and duration of the speech wave, convey the state of the forensic orator (speaker) with greater accuracy than the segment characteristics. When these changes are perceived, recipients (listeners) form optimal perceptual judgments. According to N. V. Kozhedub, all the intonation characteristics form a "scale of importance" highlighting the significant segments of the phrase, with the main role played by pitch. The pitch interval and the kinetic tone interact with such intonation components as tempo and loudness.

The data obtained as a result of the mathematical and statistical study of the corpus by N. V. Kozedub have shown that not all elements of the prosodic structure of courtroom utterances are equivalent in the formation of the perlocutive effect of persuasion. And only such acoustic parameters as the frequency of pre-nuclear, nuclear and post-nuclear syllables and the average intensity of the nuclear syllable can be distinctive. The speaker chooses certain melodics to optimize the relationship between the utterance, the response of listeners and the intended perlocutive effect. N. V. Kozhedub presumes that these relationships consist of various tone components of the phrase stress, i.e. tones, which form certain melodic patterns.

1 «В результате на фоне просодических признаков, которые можно считать инвариантными для академической публичной речи, наблюдаются вариативные признаки, являющиеся проявлением индивидуального стиля оратора».

The results obtained by N. V. Kozhedub (2009) in the course of experimental analysis showed that the perlocutive effect of persuasion is achieved through affirmative and interrogative utterances, while imperative courtroom utterances have this effect in a lesser degree. The forensic speaker widely uses intonation to form illocutionally ambiguous acts of indirect speech, which are a vivid example of creating a perlocutive effect of persuasion. Thus, the utterances of defense lawers and accusers equally have a pronounced perlocutive effect of persuasion.

3. Phonetic variability of the English language functioning on the territory of North America

The main object of the study of Russian linguists is, first of all, the British (see above) and American variants of the English language (see, for example, [Андросова 2004; Андросова, Гусева 2007; Казак 2013a; 2013b; Казак, Лузина 2013; Пальченко 2001; Постникова 2001; Скопинцева 2001; Якунина 2000; Якунина 2001] and others).

In the work [Шевченко 2015], the role of the prosody of the English spoken language in the creation of the national and sociocultural identity of certain population groups in the United Kingdom and the USA is indicated.

The author notes some differences in the prosody of UK and US native speakers: the American pronunciation standard by the regional principle tends to the north, while the British pronunciation standard is connected historically and culturally with the southeast of England. The American standard developed on the basis of colloquial speech, is associated with a narrow range of the fundamental frequency (FF), while the British pronunciation standard reflecting the spoken language of the social elite is associated with a wide FF range. American women use a wider FF range than American men, unlike British women who speak in a narrower FF range than British men [Шевченко 2015].

As the experiment showed [Агальцов 2000], the standard American pronunciation is more oriented toward the northern type of pronunciation, i.e. has pronounced variants of vowel realization inherent in northern dialects. Some vowels ([a:], [ei] and [au]) have deviations from standard values in directions typical for the Northern shift [Labov 1991].

Of particular interest is the geographic conditionality of the smooth transition in the speech continuum represented by a number of intermediate

regions along the North-South axis of the United States. Subjects in the experiment conducted by E. A. Babushkina and T. I. Shevchenko (2000) were grouped as representatives of such regions as: North, Northern Midland, Southern Midland and South.

The results obtained in the course of the instrumental analysis made it possible for E. A. Babushkina and T. I. Shevchenko (2000) to draw a conclusion that the temporal component of prosody is an informative indicator of regional English speech in the US: the tempo slows down as we move to the South; and socially - with aging and status upgrading. The FF range manifests itself as a stable parameter for recognition of regional speech only if such social characteristics as status, gender, age and level of education of the speakers are neutralized, i.e. the territorial factor is interconnected with social phenomena.

E. A. Babushkina and T. I. Shevchenko (2000) scientifically substantiate the persistence of pronounciation stereotypes of the North and South in the USA. In the minds of the Americans, the norm is associated with the North and the West, therefore the southern pronunciation is perceived as a kind of "marginal" and therefore as substandard. Moving towards the South, one can observe that people speak more slowly, which is manifested, first of all, in increasing the duration of the pause with respect to phonation, as well as in increasing the average duration of syllables (this is stylistically noted in spontaneous speech, but not in reading). In addition, in the South, people use a wider range of voice, which is most relevant to women.

Among the many circumstances of external influence on the language, gender holds a significant place. The phonetic, in particular prosodic, aspect of speech in the gender perspective [Банков 2008] is of scientific interest, which is primarily due to the recognition of the function of language in the process of constructing gender identities [Кирилина 1999] and understanding the role played by intonation in the realization of various meanings. Gender has at least two basic structural components: personal and social. The social component of gender regulates the number and properties of gender statuses. It functions independently of a particular individual in the form of normative, hierarchical, stereotyped and role systems and refers to the society as a whole. The personal component of gender is a set of conceptual representations in the mind of a person, formed as a result of comprehending social norms and developing their own attitude in relation to them. The interaction of gender with the language is

built according to the structural division of the former. Consequently, two channels of interaction are obvious: "social component - language" and "personal component - speech" [Банков, 2008].

Taking into account the social and linguistic significance of gender, its speech markers can be considered a "set of linguistic units serving a limited speech sphere" [Потапова, 2000]. In this case, it is proper to speak about gender sublanguages: the sublanguage of female gender and the sublanguage of male gender [Банков, 2008]. Each of them has absolutely specific characteristics, which are their differentiating features, relatively specific - situationally conditioned - and non-specific.

According to A. S. Bankov (2008), in spontaneous speech, gender differences are much more pronounced: men are less likely to use quasi-pauses; and long pauses in women's speech are almost twice as short as in men's speeches.

The next stage of the linguistic analysis is A. S. Bankov's consideration of interaction of gender and speech rhythm. On the basis of the relationship between the structural type of rhythmic groups and their position in the speech segment (phrase or syntagma), A. S. Bankov revealed the following: in male speech, the distribution of structural types of rhythmic groups by positions in speech segments looks more monotonous and on the whole gives the impression of greater systematization than in women's speech.

According to A.S. Bankov, the speech melodics has the following gender differences: the melodic patterns in the speech of men and women differ in that the former are perceived as less variable and more monotonous than the latter.

Thus, in conclusion, it should be emphasized that A. S. Bankov's study contributes to the development of the sociolinguistic problem of studying mechanisms for the realization of the gender factor in language and speech. An important aspect of the work is a comprehensive study of the mechanisms for constructing a gender image by the means of phrase prosody in American English (AE).

The gender specificity of the prosody of the American spontaneous monologue in its relationship with the age features of speech is also of great interest. Work [Романова 2011] presents the results of acoustic analysis of melodics, range and speech tempo.

E. Ju. Romanova (2011) concluded that in the monologic speech of the representatives of both sexes descending and even pitch patterns

predominate; the range of female speech is wider than that of male speech. The average length of the syllable (ALS) in men's speech is less than in women's speech; therefore, the speed of articulation (tempo) in men's speech is higher. The average duration of intonation phrases and pauses in women's speech is lower than in men's speech, and the number of intonation phrases pronounced in one minute is longer, consequently, the overall tempo in women's speech is higher.

Russian researchers also address the main complex problems in the study of the American English speech rhythm [Сокорева 2015]. The results of the analysis of the acoustic characteristics of the foot as a unit of rhythm and stressed and unstressed syllables of its components establish the presence of age-related changes in the speech rhythm of the American-native speaker subjects, as well as the possibility of recognizing the rhythmic type of language directly at the beginning of mediated distant discourse1 (term by R. K. Potapova).

In Т. V. Sokoreva's opinion (2015), the results of the study indicate a certain change in the speech rhythm with the course of human life. The rhythmical organization ofthe speech ofAmerican men and women undergoes various changes with age: as the age of the American-native speaker subjects increases, the values of the mean length of the foot and the stressed syllable increase, and the ratio of the duration of the stressed syllable with respect to unstressed syllables also increases. With age, in speech of both men and women the FF interval expands and values of the variability index, FF ,

L J 7 max

increase. Female speech, as the informants get older, is characterized by a decrease in the variability index for values of the duration of the foot and FFmax values in stressed and unstressed syllables. With age, in the speech of men and in the speech of women there is a decrease in FF values. All this

L mm

indicates a change in the rhythmic pattern of speech throughout the life of a person: the speech rhythm of Americans becomes more accent-based with age. The results obtained during the analysis made it possible for T. Sokoreva to speak about some gender changes in prosodic characteristics: FFmax values in women's speech are higher than in men's speech, and the variability index for intensity values is higher in men's speech.

The study of a single project [Сокорева, Шевченко 2016] and [Сокорева 2018] is devoted to the analysis of age-related changes in the rhythm of the English language, in the experimental part of which

1 In this case, telephone conversations.

prosodic characteristics were considered that make up the speech rhythm of 102 American-native speaker subjects in terms of distant discourse1 (term by R. K. Potapova).

The study ofthe American dialogical speech proved that the optimization of prosodic means to maintain the rhythm goes simultaneously with the development and then the decay of the person's physical capabilities, as well as the enrichment of their social and linguistic practice, which allows at every stage of human life to assess the significance of the changes occurring. Rhythm as a regular alternation of strong and weak elements, rhythm as periodicity and predictability helps reveal accented stressed syllables, which draw attention to the most informative part of the utterance, providing word recognition and speech understanding. Preservation of this ability has been shown in these works: the results indicate the presence in the speech of older Americans of compensatory processes aimed, in the authors' opinion, at maintaining the most important prosodic models providing efficient speech perception, segmentation, recognition and understanding.

An important aspect of the research of Russian linguists is also studying pronunciation phenomena in Canadian English (CE). It is well known that the pronunciation norm in Canada is closely related to spelling. In some cases, adherence to the American or British standard initially implies a certain form of the word and its pronunciation. On the other hand, American pronunciation of words written according to the rules of British orthography can be preserved (and vice versa). The interpenetration of the national pronunciation variants of England and the United States is one of the main features of the pronunciation in Canada. Consequently, Canadian English reflecting the historical ties with Britain and the geographic co-location with the United States, has incorporated many of the features of two cultures ([Scargill 1977; Boberg 2010; Цибуля 2000; Казак 2013b; Вишневская, Абызов 2016] and others). Therefore, in this case, one can speak about the following comprehensive process: the British and American traditions determine the choice of orthoepy, and both these traditions also differ in variability and change with time.

The studies within an integrated project [Shevchenko, Pozdeeva 2017] and [Поздеева 2018] are devoted to the study of the specificity of the word stress in Canadian English in normative, cognitive, perceptual and acoustic aspects.

1 i.e. telephone conversations.

Canadian English (CE) word stress, apart from sharing stress patterns with either the American or the British norms, reveals nationally specific rhythm-based features. The evidence was collected by working through the English Pronouncing Dictionary (EPD) and the Canadian Oxford Dictionary (COD). The next step was comparing frequencies of words with varying stress patterns in three national written and spoken speech corpora: the British National Corpus (BNC), the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) and the Corpus of Canadian English (CCE). The words under analysis displayed nearly identical frequencies in the three sources; 89 most frequent polysyllabic words were selected for online express-survey. Canadian subjects (30) representing the diversity of CE linguistic identities (anglophones, francophones, allophones) which affected their decision on word stress locations demonstrated their preferences for either the Canadian, the British or the American stress patterns, accordingly. The viability of the Canadian stress patterns was supported by the data from more Canadian natural speech corpora: International Dialects of English Archive (IDEA) and Voices of the International Corpus of English (VOICE). Acoustic and perceptual analyses based on production and perception processing performed by native (anglophone) CE speakers demonstrated the significance of secondary stress in CE stress patterns [Shevchenko, Pozdeeva 2017, p. 221].

Thus, in this study, the verbal stress in CE is studied from a number of angles: norms fixed in the national vocabulary prescribing the use of a certain accent model are compared by the authors with accent models settled in the minds of native speakers. Perceptual and acoustic analyzes made it possible for the authors to identify accent models that are used in real speech, as well as acoustic keys that act as references in the selection and perception of stressed syllables.

4. Phonetic variability of the English language functioning on the territory of the Asian continent

Due to the international status of the English language, Russian linguists confirm the fact that at present the English language has ceased to belong exclusively to the speakers of the so-called "traditional variants", i.e. to those speaking in national variants of Great Britain, USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

This trend is also evident in the study of the English language variant in India [Ледяева, Илларионова 2012]. With closer attention, the authors turn to the problem of the hinglish "language" based on the interaction of English and Hindi. As the analysis of examples has shown, in Hinglish orthoepic interference is more often observed, that is, the replacement of the middle and final vowels and consonants. There are also cases of linguistic compression and, on the contrary, the phenomenon of language redundancy due to inclusions from the Hindi language.

Consequently, Hinglish is a mix of Hindi and English. It often sounds in the speech of modern student youth, many educated Indians, Indian specialists working in the field of information technology, and tradesmen. Hinglish dominates in the cinema, on television, especially on musical and entertainment channels, in advertising, and in the media. It is also the language of a subculture or hybrid culture of a certain class of ethnic Indians living or born outside India [Ледяева, Илларионова 2012].

In her work E. Ju. Romanova (2015) explores phonetic features of the English language in India by the example of the northern Indian type of pronunciation. An attempt is made to identify the phonetic differences between the northern Indian variant and the British pronunciation standard at the segmental level. It is concluded that the studied northern Indian variant of English has a large number of sound differences, especially from the British standard consonant system. The author then dwells on the following basic characteristics of the northern Indian dialect of English: the majority of British long vowels retained the original sound (with the exception of the sound /з:/). British short vowels, unlike long vowels, were influenced by Indian languages. The diphthong system is characterized by a process of monophthongization. Only two diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ are identified, which are close to the British diphthongs. Consonants are characterized by retroflexion and the absence of aspiration. Also, the author of the study mentions the absence of dental fricatives /0/ and /6/ in the consonant system of the northern Indian variant of English. In the consonant system, the absence of some sounds is observed: /3/, /h/ and /j/, which are transmitted by the corresponding sounds in the northern dialect.

The same group of studies of the third circle of English-speaking countries includes works aimed at identification of characteristic melodic features of the unprepared English speech of indigenous inhabitants of India and Hong Kong [Казакова 2015]. A number of distinctive features

of the intonation systems of the studied variants of the English language were manifested in the use of the pitch and range, and also in the melodics of the pre-nuclear and nuclear parts of the utterance.

As a result of O. V. Kazakova's analysis of the fundamental frequency (FF) range in the speech of those speaking the Indian and Hong Kong variants revealed a significant difference. No discernable discrepancy was found between the two variants in the range width in the conducted study.

The prosodic systems of both variants represent a "blending" of properties of the pattern and level tonal systems, according to O. V. Kaza-kova (2015), that emerged as a result of the interaction of intonation systems of English and native languages. In the Indian variant of the English language the tendency prevails, in which there is a leap in post-tonic syllables of the pre-nuclear part foot to a higher level, while in the Hong Kong variant of the English language there is a leap to a lower level.

Investigation by V. Zavyalova, D. Poduzova, D. Shaydullina and E. Lukina (2015) is called "Spoken-speech databases corresponding to the realization of a foreign accent: the problem of annotation". The attention of the authors is drawn to the difficulty in annotating speech with a foreign accent on the example of the Russian-Asian Corpus of English created at the Far Eastern Federal University (Vladivostok, Russia). The corpus was based on the results of phonetic studies of East Asian English1. As shown by a number of studies, East Asian English is characterized by a specific accent based on the phonological typology of the speakers' native languages including the syllabic organization influencing the segmentation of the final interfered speech utterance. The created corpus of the interfered Russian-Asian-English speech contains sociolinguistic information on the speakers, including age, gender, nationality, countries of birth, etc. This includes information on the communicative situation, the quality of the material records, etc. The corpus includes such kinds of speech activity as quasi-spontaneous speech and prepared samples of interfered English speech.

1 In this respect, the dictionary by Z. G. Proshina (2004) is of great interest, which reveals the role of English as an intermediary language between the East Asian countries and native speakers of the Russian language. This dictionary presents the English-language borrowings of the realities of China, Korea and Japan, as well as words reflecting the relationship of English speakers with the peoples of East Asia.

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be emphasized that work in this field of knowledge is methodologically correlated with the theory of variability in the phonetic system of language having the following four bases.

First, the phonetic variability is defined by the very apparatus of the speech organs, the pneumatic-mechanical mechanism of all sound units and the speech process itself. This aspect of phonetic variation is called organo-genetic or organic. Secondly, the phonetic variability depends on systemic interrelations of sound units, their location in the structures of phonetic words and utterances. This aspect of it is called systemic or structural. Third, the phonetic variability is caused by the need to differentiate various speech styles and genres. This aspect is called stylistic-differentiating or stylistic Fourth, the phonetic variability of sound units and the correlated phonetic structures of phonetic words and utterances formed by them is due to the presence of dialectal, local and social differences in the phonetic system of language. This aspect of phonetic variability is called dialectal' [TopcyeB 1977, p. 3-4].

At the phonetic level, one should refer to the classification of sound variants proposed by G. K. Kenzhebulatova (1992). The author considers the distribution of sound units following the classification of individual speech facts depending on their cause. Thus, the variation of sound units is divided into two main "blocks": intralinguistic and extralinguistic variation of sound units. Intralinguistic variation includes both allophonic variation (positional, combinatorial and prosodic), and diaphonic variation (historical, territorial). Extralinguistic variation is

1 «Во-первых, фонетическая вариативность обусловлена самим устройством органов речи, пневматико-механической основой всех звуковых единиц и самого процесса речи. Этот аспект фонетической вариативности называется органо-генетическим, или органическим. Во-вторых, фонетическая вариативность обусловлена системными взаимоотношениями звуковых единиц, их местоположением в структурах фонетических слов и высказываний. Этот ее аспект называется системным, или структурным. В-третьих, фонетическая вариативность обусловлена необходимостью дифференцировать различные стили и жанры речи. Этот аспект носит название стилистически-дифференцирующий, или стилистический. В-четвертых, фонетическая вариативность звуковых единиц и образуемых ими соотносимых фонетических структур фонетических слов и высказываний обусловлена наличием диалектальных, местных и социальных различий в фонетической системе языка. Этот аспект фонетической вариативности называется диалектальным».

a sociophonic variation depending on such parameters as age, gender, profession, social status and situation.

All the more important are studies of various kinds of variation in English speech, depending on the models of the formation of national variants. This fact is related to the phonology of the three circles of the English language functioning (the time of formation of the new variant, the social context and contacts with other languages and cultures): the first circle of the English language functioning on the territory of the British Isles (Wales, Ireland, Scotland, England); the second circle of the English language functioning (USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa); the third circle of the English language functioning (Nigeria, India, Singapore, Hong Kong).

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