CC BY
25
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18454/RULB.2021.25.1.28
АНГЛИЙСКИЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ ВОСПРИЯТИЯ, КОГНИТИВНЫЕ МЕТАФОРЫ И ИХ ЭКВИВАЛЕНТЫ ВО
ВЬЕТНАМСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ
Научная статья
Фуонг Нгуен Хоанг *
Университет социальных и гуманитарных наук, Вьетнамский национальный университет, Хошимин, Вьетнам * Корреспондирующий автор (nguyenhoangphuong[at]hcmussh.edu.vn)
Аннотация
Семантика английских глаголов восприятия сложна, разнообразна и неясна. Для перевода этих глаголов на вьетнамский язык необходимо глубокое понимание контекста, внутри которого они находятся. К примеру, глагол "to see" (видеть) может иметь десятки значений в различных ситуациях, таких как "to contemplate" (созерцать), "to seem to be" (казаться), "to consider" (рассматривать), "to check" (проверять), "to supervise" (контролировать), "to watch" (наблюдать), "to think" (думать), "to notice" (замечать), "to hope" (надеяться), "to turn to somewhere" (поворачиваться куда-то). Ввиду этого целью данной статьи является исследование эквивалентности когнитивных метафор английских глаголов восприятия во вьетнамском языке. В статье изучены, и собраны в качестве исследовательских данных 3946 предложений с глаголами восприятия из двух наборов англо-вьетнамских и вьетнамско-английских двуязычных романов. В статье использовались такие лингвистические методы, как описательный, аналитический, сопоставительный, а также процедура идентификации метафоры для анализа и исследования с целью выявления основных способов передачи когнитивных значений метафор с помощью исследуемых глаголов. Результаты исследования показывают, что существует 6 способов формирования когнитивных метафор. Данное исследование поможет учащимся и переводчикам вьетнамского и английского языков эффективно и всесторонне использовать эти глаголы в практике данных языков.
Ключевые слова: глагол восприятия, когнитивная метафора, семантика, эквивалентность.
ENGLISH PERCEPTION VERBS COGNITIVE METAPHORS AND THEIR EQUIVALENCE IN VIETNAMESE
Research article
Phuong Nguyen Hoang *
University of Social Sciences & Humanities, Vietnam National University, Hochiminh, Vietnam
* Corresponding author (nguyenhoangphuong[at]hcmussh.edu.vn)
Abstract
The semantics of English perception verbs are various, complicated, and subtle. It is necessary to have a profound understanding of specific contexts to translate these verbs into Vietnamese. For instance, the verb "see" can have dozens of meanings in different situations, such as contemplating, seem to be, considering, checking, supervising, watching, thinking, noticing, hoping, turning to somewhere, etc. As a result, this article aims to research and study the cognitive metaphor equivalence of English perception verbs in Vietnamese. In total, 3,946 sentences with perception verbs were inspected and collected as research data from two sets of English-Vietnamese, Vietnamese-English bilingual novels. Linguistic methods, such as descriptive, analytical, contrastive, and metaphor identification methods, have been used to analyze and investigate the basic ways that these verbs can convey cognitive metaphor meanings. Research results show that there are six modes of cognitive metaphor formation. These results help learners, translators, and interpreters of Vietnamese and English use them effectively and comprehensively in their bilingual interactions.
Keywords: perception verb, cognitive metaphor, semantics, equivalence.
Introduction
The concepts that govern our thinking are not simply the product of wisdom. They affect our daily activities to the most trivial details. Our concepts structuralize our feelings, our behavior, and even our relationships with others. At the same time, our conceptual system plays a central role in defining the entities of everyday life. Based on linguistic phenomena, much of our everyday system of concepts is metaphorical. Conceptual/cognitive metaphor is one form of conceptualization, which is a cognitive process of manifesting and forming new concepts. The essence of metaphor is to structuralize our perception, our thoughts, and our activities [7].
One of the most frequent conceptual mechanisms that structuralize language is a conceptual metaphor. A conceptual metaphor is a cognitive mechanism whereby abstract entities are conceptualized through concrete ones, so the source domain A is understood in terms of the target domain B.
In "Love is a Journey" [7], the knowledge of the source domain Journey is used to interpret the target domain Love, leading to the creation of concepts like "this relationship has hit a dead-end street', "from now on, we'll go our separate ways", "their marriage is on the rocks'', or "we 're spinning our wheels".
LOVE IS A JOURNEY
Look how far we've come.
We're at a crossroads.
We'll just have to go our separate ways.
We can't turn back now.
I don't think this relationship is going anywhere.
Where are we?
We're stuck.
It's been a long, bumpy road.
This relationship is a dead-end street.
We're just spinning our wheels.
Our marriage is on the rocks.
We've gotten off the track.
This relationship is foundering [7, P. 45].
Usually, the source domain is more specific than the target domain. Perception is a specific domain and participates as the source domain in many metaphors, such as Understanding is Seeing [6], [7]. In this metaphor, the source domain Seeing event is mapped to the Understanding event.
Ex: I see what you mean. It's very clear to me.
In this article, we will examine how English perception verbs cognitive metaphors are formed and what their equivalence is in Vietnamese.
Methods
We have extracted 3,946 sentences containing perception verbs as research data from two English-Vietnamese, Vietnamese-English bilingual novels, namely The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Love After War. After that, cases of specific semantic cognition transferred from English into Vietnamese were tracked down by statistical analysis methods. Also, descriptive, analytical, contrastive, and metaphor identification methods were used to analyze and examine the main ways that these verbs possess cognitive metaphor meanings. The metaphor identification methods used are MIP and MIPVU.
1. Metaphor Identification
Non-structural linguists consider metaphor a semantic deviance or a selection restrictions violation. Dan Fass [4] argued that "metaphor constitutes a violation of selectional restriction rules within a given context."
From the cognitive point of view, Cameron [3] said that "a linguistic expression is considered metaphor if one or more of the elements in that expression are in the source domain and mapped to a certain target domain but there is an irrationality between the two domains that the recipient can interpret as a meaning transition from the source domain."
2. Metaphor Identification Methods
Semino [9] argued that an effective and reliable metaphor identification method must handle these issues:
i. the boundary between the literal and the metaphorical in the identification of linguistic metaphors;
ii. the precise identification of tenor and vehicle in relation to each linguistic metaphor;
iii. the extrapolation of conceptual metaphors from linguistic metaphors;
iv. the extrapolation of conventional metaphors from patterns of linguistic metaphors in the data.
2.1. MIP Method
The Pragglejaz team [8] suggested a method to identify metaphorically used words in a discourse called MIP (metaphor identification procedure) in 2007. MIP is a simple and effective method to identify metaphors with the following steps:
i. Read the entire text-discourse to establish a general understanding of the meaning.
ii. Determine the lexical units in the text-discourse.
iii. (a) For each lexical unit in the text, establish its meaning in context, that is, how it applies to an entity, relation, or attribute in the situation evoked by the text (contextual meaning). Take into account what comes before and after the lexical unit.
(b) For each lexical unit, determine if it has a more basic contemporary meaning in other contexts than the one in the given context. For our purposes, basic meanings tend to be:
— More concrete; what they evoke is easier to imagine, see, hear, feel, smell, and taste.
— Related to bodily action.
— More precise (as opposed to vague).
— Historically older.
Basic meanings are not necessarily the most frequent meanings of the lexical unit.
(c) If the lexical unit has a more basic current or contemporary meaning in other contexts than the given context, decide whether the contextual meaning contrasts with the basic meaning but can be understood in comparison with it.
iv. If yes, mark the lexical unit as metaphorical.
Now, we use this method to identify metaphors of the verb "thay" in the following utterance: Toi chua thay ai la nguoi Gia Rai noi tieng Kinh soi hon the.
i. Read the entire text-discourse to establish a general understanding of the meaning.
ii. Determine the lexical units in the text-discourse
Toi / chua / thay / ai / la / nguoi / Gia Rai / noi / tieng / Kinh / soi / hon / the.
iii. a) Meaning in context: has another meaning, in relationship with "Toi" before and "noi tieng Kinh soi hon the" after it, the meanings of "thay" are hear, evaluate, and assess.
b) Basic meaning: is the perception result of "nhin", visual recognition.
c) This contextual meaning can be understood.
iv. So, "thay" has metaphorical meaning. Thay = heard, evaluate, assess.
2.2. MIPVU Method
The MIP method was still controversial among linguists around the world because the results of metaphorical identification depend more or less on the researcher's intuition. In 2010, Gerard J. S. [5], based on MIP, improved it to be MIPVU and resolved the disagreements about conceptual metaphor. Here is the MIPVU example from Gerard J. S.:
Table 1 - MIPVU example
Text Now sleeps the crimson petal.
i. Identify metaphorical expressions sleep
ii. Identify the clauses P1 (sleep petal) P2 (P1 modifier now) P3 (modifier petal crimson)
iii. Identify the open contrastive structure (3F)(3a){SIM[F(crimson petal)], [(a) sleep]}
iv. Identify the closed contrastive structure SIM {[motionless (crimson petal)], [sleep (human)]}
v. Identify the projection sleep => inactive human => petal inferences: purpose of sleep => body resting sleeping time => inactive time
Using MIPVU, we investigate this utterance: Tôi chua thây ai là nguoi Gia Rai noi tiéng Kinh soi hon thé.
Table 2 - A pplying MIPVU
Text Tôi chua thây ai là nguoi Gia Rai noi tiêng Kinh söi hon thê.
i. Identify metaphorical expressions thây
ii. Identify the clauses P1 (thây noi tiêng Kinh soi)
iii. Identify the open contrastive structure (3F)(3a){SIM[F(noi tiêng Kinh soi)], [(a) thây]}
iv. Identify the closed contrastive structure SIM {[nghe thây (noi tiêng Kinh soi)], [thây (nhân biêt)]}
v. Identify the projection thây => nghe thây (heard) nhân biêt => noi tiêng Kinh soi
Results
English Perception Verbs Metaphorical Meaning's Equivalence in Vietnamese 1. Metaphorical Meaning's Equivalence of "Look" in Vietnamese
Table 3 - Equivalence of "look"
Verb Equivalence Frequency Percentage
look ngäm 7 2.95%
co vè 142 59.92%
tim 34 14.35%
xem xét 32 13.50%
kiêm tra 5 2.11%
trông coi 4 1.69%
quan sat 6 2.53%
nghï 3 1.27%
dê y 1 0.42%
mong muôn 2 0.84%
huong dên 1 0.42%
Total 237 100.00%
a. Look is Ngim
Ex: She stood in front of the mirror for a very long time, looking at herself intensely, judging every feature on her oval face. Chi cu dung that lau truoc guong, mai me ng4m nghia, danh gia tung net tren khuon mat trai xoan cua minh.
b. Look is Co ve
Ex: He looked as if he had wanted to tell me something for a long time. Co ve anh muon noi dieu nay tu lau.
c. Look is Tim
Ex: Have they thought of looking outside the house? Ho co nghl den viec tim kiem C ben ngoai ngoi nha khong?
d. Look is Xem xet
Ex: I looked at the uncooked pot of rice. Toi da xem lai xoong com da song nhan ho ong lao doan gao len.
e. Look is Kiem tra
Ex: Someone was appointed to look into my case. Va nguoi ta cu nguoi di kiem tra that.
f. Look is Trong coi
Ex: He asked you to look after it. Thay nho trong nha kia ma.
g. Look is Quan sat
Ex: It was only when you looked at others of his generation that you could truly see the difference between him and them. Quan sat lop ban dong lieu cua ong moi thay ho khac ong lim.
h. Look is Nghi
Ex: But you do not yourself look upon this as likely? Nhung chinh ngai khong nghi la co the u?
i. Look is Be y
Ex: Only if one looked closely did one see a bluish-white mist of smoke in the air. Be y ky moi thay mot man khoi Mng xanh giang mo trong phong.
j. Look is Mong muon
Ex: More than once he had promised himself that if only he received one letter, had one visitor, he would be at ease and not look forward to anything else. Chi can duoc nhan mot la thu, duoc don mot khach, duoc nghe dien thoai thi ong se yen tam khong doi hoi gi nua.
k. Look is Huong den
Ex: He walked swiftly round from one to the other, pausing only at the large one which looked from the hall onto the stable lane. Anh nhanh chong di tu cua so nay den cua so khac va dung lai mot luc truoc cua so lon ngo ra loi di dua den chuong ngua.
2. Metaphorical Meaning's Equivalence of "See" in Vietnamese
Table 4 - Equivalence of "see"
Verb Equivalence Frequency Percentage
xem xét 89 26.20%
biét 48 14.10%
nhân ra 65 19.10%
gap 77 22.70%
see hiêu 20 5.90%
tiên 9 2.60%
thâm 12 3.53%
quan sât 12 3.53%
phât hiên 6 1.75%
nhin nhân 2 0.59%
Total 340 100.00%
a. See is Xem xét
Ex: Why didn't you see what happens in this world? Ông chà xem nguoi thiên ha do?
b. See is Biet
Ex: I wanted to find a woman who I'd never seen before. Tôi muon tim kiém mot nguoi dàn bà chua biét mât.
c. See is Nhân ra
Ex: Did you not see how my hand trembled while passing you the envelopes? Anh không nhân ra bàn tay em run rây khi trao cho anh may tam phong bi u?
d. See is Gâp
Ex: How can you ask me that the first time you ever saw me? Châng le vùa gâp, anh dâ hôi thé sao?
e. See is Hiêu
Ex: Then I do not see the point. Không hieu su the ra sao.
f. See is Tien
Ex: Especially when she witnessed her friends seeing their children off to university. Nhat là khi chi chung kién câi cânh ban bè tien dua con di dai hoc.
g. See is Thâm
Ex: I came to see you, daddy. Con dén thâm bo.
h. See is Quan sât
Ex: Tell Quy Anh and her sister to come and see junior skin Bamboo alive. Goi chi em Quy Anh ra dây mà xem Cu Nho lot da con Sùng Mâng.
i. See is Phât hiên
Ex: Did you see nothing which aroused your suspicions when you returned on hearing the cry and found your father fatally injured? Anh không phât hiên mot dau hiêu nghi van gi khi anh chay dén chô bo anh bi nan à? j. See is Nhin nhân
Ex: When the boy had passed his first month, she had taken him to see his paternal grandparents. Con day cù, Thu Hong bé no sang xom bên de nhân ông noi bà noi cùa no.
3. Metaphorical Meaning's Equivalence of "Listen" in Vietnamese
Table 5 - Equivalence of "listen"
Verb Equivalence Frequency Percentage
listen biêt 2 50.00%
tro chuyên 1 25.00%
xem 1 25.00%
Total 4 100.00%
a. Listen is Biet
Ex: And yet I question, sir, whether, in all your experience, you have ever listened to a more mysterious and inexplicable chain of events than those which have happened in my own family. Nhung du sao, thua ngai, toi van ngd la trong qua trinh hoat dong cua minh, ngai chua bao gid nghe noi den nhung chuyen kinh khung nhu chuyen da xay ra voi gia dinh toi.
b. Listen is Tro chuyen
Ex: What a relief it was to listen to someone in the same circumstances as himself. Duoc chuyen voi ngudi cung canh, duoc cudi, sung suong biet bao!
c. Listen is Xem
Ex: Listen to this. Xem day!
4. Metaphorical Meaning's Equivalence of "Hear" in Vietnamese
Table 6 - Equivalence of "hear"
Verb Equivalence Frequency Percentage
hear biet 68 45.03%
nhân ra 56 37.10%
thây 15 9.93%
nhân 6 3.97%
nghe loi 4 2.65%
hiêu 1 0.66%
muon 1 0.66%
Total 151 100.00%
a. Hear is Biet
Ex: I also heard that my host's younger brother, V, came back from abroad and was working in a scientific institute in Ha Noi. Tôi côn biet thêm, anh V, em trai anh dâ vè nuôc, hiên dang công tac à mot viên nghiên cùu khoa hoc cùa Trung uong tai Hà noi.
b. Hear is Nhân ra
Ex: Outside she hears the rain falling heavily, the sound mixing with the even beating of the fan, the atmosphere completely different than it was during the day. Lùc này Vi môi nhân ra tiéng mua roi rào ro, tiéng quat so thâp chay êm êm dèu dèu, nhân ra bàu không khi vây quanh chi dâ khac hân ban ngày.
c. Hear is Thây
Ex: I'd never heard a Gia Rai who could speak Vietnamese this well. Tôi chua thay ai là nguoi Gia Rai noi tiéng Kinh soi hon thé.
d. Hear is Nhân
Ex: The whole family was excited when they heard of the transfer decision. Cà nhà dâ hao hùc khi nhân duoc quyét dinh chuyen vùng.
e. Hear is Nghe loi
Ex: I demanded over and over again to be discharged, but the lady director of the camp wouldn't hear of it. Nhièu làn em dôi ra viên, nhung chi tram truàng nhât dinh không nghe.
f. Hear is Hieu
Ex: She couldn't hear what the people around her were saying. Nàng tâp lai phia sau nhùng nguoi dang bàn tan, co hieu nhung châng hieu duoc nhùng gi ho dang noi.
g. Hear is Muon
Ex: The richer pa grew the poorer was Frank; so at last pa wouldn't hear of our engagement lasting any longer, and he took me away to 'Frisco. Bài vây, cha tôi không muon cuoc dinh hôn dài lâu hon nùa, ông bèn dua tôi dén San Francisco.
5. Metaphorical Meaning's Equivalence of "Smell" in Vietnamese
Table 7 - Equivalence of "smell"
Verb Equivalence Frequency Percentage
smell nhân ra 8 100.00%
Total 8 100.00%
Smell is Nhan ra
Ex: I could smell a slight odor of alcohol on his breath. Thoang co mui ruou. 6. Metaphorical Meaning's Equivalence of "Taste" in Vietnamese
Table 8 - Equivalence of "taste"
Verb Equivalence Frequency Percentage
taste än uong 3 75.00%
câm thây 1 25.00%
Total 4 100.00%
a. Taste is Än uong
Ex: That evening he called me to his room to taste some wine and gnaw at some fish while he bent my ear. Buoi toi, ong goi toi sang phong ong cung nham nhap. b. Taste is Cam thay
Ex: It tasted good because I'd just begun to feel hungry. Cam thay ngon vi luc nay moi thay doi. 7. Metaphorical Meaning's Equivalence of "Touch" in Vietnamese
Table 9 - Equivalence of "touch"
Verb Equivalence Frequency Percentage
touch cham 33 91.67%
gap 3 8.33%
Total 36 100.00%
a. Touch is Cham
Ex: He felt palpably, as though he were actually touching it. Anh cam thây cham duoc vào xùc giac nôi dau kho cùa chi.
b. Touch is Gap
Ex: I felt fortunate that my country hadn't been touched by that same storm. Bât nuôc Hamania cùa tôi may mà chua gap
bâo.
8. Metaphorical Meaning's Equivalence of "Feel" in Vietnamese
Table 10 - Equivalence of "feel"
Verb Equivalence Frequency Percentage
feel camnhân 3 50.00%
dô xét 3 50.00%
Total 6 100.00%
a. Feel is Cam nhan
Ex: The ceiling was only a foot or two above my head, and with my hand upraised I could feel its hard, rough surface. Tran nha chi con cach dau toi khoang mot hai sai, va chi can voi tay len la toi co the cham vao be mat cung va rap cua no.
b. Feel is Do xet
Ex: 'Well,' said I, 'you said you'd give me one for Christmas, and I was feeling which was the fattest.' Chi hua is tang em mot con nhan ngay le phuc sinh va em xem thu con nao map nhat.
Discussion
Main Ways English Perception Verbs Convey Cognitive Metaphors
1. Cognitive Object Dominance
These metaphors are formed relying on the dominance of the semantic requirements and characteristics of the cognitive object.
Ex: Mi watched me eating attentively, but I knew clearly that she was not seeing. Mi nhin toi an cham chu nhung toi biet ro co khong nhin thay gi het.
In this utterance, the cognitive object of nhin is toi an. This cognitive object is a process. Therefore, the verb nhin in this utterance conveys the metaphor meaning of watching.
Table 11 - Cognitive object dominance metaphors
Verb Equivalence Frequency Percentage
theo döi 17 6.03%
xem xét 10 3.55%
look dôi diên 4 1.40%
huong dên 5 1.75%
nghe thây 15 5.32%
theo döi 6 2.13%
see bät gäp 10 3.55%
quan sât 8 2.84%
co 1 0.35%
chung kiên 1 0.35%
hear co ve 5 1.75%
smell co 1 0.35%
touch vuon dên 1 0.35%
Total 282 30.07%
2. Cognitive Perceiver Dominance
These metaphors are formed because of the dominance of the semantic requirements and characteristics of the cognitive perceiver.
Ex: U, co cung thay nen de ma con toan quyen!
In this utterance, we can see that the verb thay is used to describe the thinking of the cognitive perceiver co. Therefore, the corresponding English translation of the sentence is: I think we should give your mother complete authority here.
Table 12 - Cognitive perceiver dominance metaphors
Verb Equivalence Frequency Percentage
look thua nhan 4 1.40%
see nghl 19 6.74%
tim ra, phat hien 56 19.86%
hieu 5 1.75%
de y 20 7.09%
gap go 3 1.05%
da biet 14 4.96%
nhan thuc duoc 4 1.40%
nhan ra 10 3.55%
co an tuong 1 0.35%
dong y 1 0.35%
tuöng tuong 1 0.35%
phan biet 1 0.35%
listen nghe löi 11 3.90%
hieu 2 0.70%
xin löi khuyen 2 0.70%
biet 2 0.70%
phan biet 2 0.70%
cam thay 4 1.40%
näm bat 3 1.05%
tim thay 2 0.70%
nghl 2 0.70%
kiem tra 1 0.35%
hear nhan duoc 3 1.05%
thay 1 0.35%
näm bät 1 0.35%
smell nhan lay 2 0.70%
taste trai qua 1 0.35%
touch chu y 1 0.35%
camnhan 3 1.05%
Total 282 69.93%
3. Being in the Same Cognition Phase
The percentage of cognitive metaphors formed due to being in the same cognition phase is extremely high. For cognitive metaphors in Vietnamese, the percentage is 93.61%, and in English, it is 98.47%.
The cognitive metaphors formed due to not being in the same cognition phase account for only a small percentage.
Table 13 - Metaphors diK to being in the same cognition phase
Verb Equivalence Frequency Percentage
nhin thùa nhân 4 1.42%
thay theo döi 6 2.13%
quan sat 8 2.84%
Tông 282 6.39%
see quan sat 12 1.53%
Total 785 1.53%
4. Cognitive Spaces Switching
These metaphors are formed due to cognitive spaces switching. This is the switching from the reality space to the assuming space (Ex: look is judging, look is accepting, etc.), from the assuming space to the cognition space (Ex: see is thought, see is understood, etc.), from the reality space to the experience space (Ex: see is known, see is realized, etc.), etc.
5. Cognitive Results Conversion
These metaphors are formed relying on the conversion of the cognitive results of other verbs into the perception verbs. For example, we have many metaphors, such as see is found, see is realized, see is perceived, etc.
6. Perception Organs Conversion
These metaphors are formed because of the conversion of the perception organs. In Vietnamese, the verb thay of the visual perception and the verb nghe of the hearing perception can be used to convey the cognitive results of all the senses, not just the visual and the hearing only.
Conclusion
The survey results show that the cognitive semantics of the perception verbs are very diverse, various, and special. Among them, the semantic traits with cognitive metaphors account for a large percentage.
The polysemy, sophistication, and subtlety of the perception verbs enrich the language. However, they also cause a huge obstacle to language learners and workers. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the identification of the exact meanings in each linguistic unit when teaching or handling languages.
Further studies of these verbs, as well as their contrastive research between languages, are very essential. Finally, this research has brought a sense not only in linguistic study but also in language teaching, learning, translating, and interpreting, as well as in many other activities related to languages.
Конфликт интересов Conflict of Interest
Не указан. None declared.
Список литературы / References
1. Arthur C. D. Nhung cuoc phieu luu cua Sherlock Holmes / Arthur C. D. Van hoc. - 2009.
2. Arthur C. D. The adventures of Sherlock Holmes / Arthur C. D. The Project Gutenberg. - 1999.
3. Cameron L. Identifying and describing metaphor in spoken discourse data. Researching and Applying Metaphor / Cameron L. Cambridge University Press. - 1999. - P. 118.
4. Fass D. Met: A method for discriminating metonymy and metaphor by computer / Fass D. Computational Linguistics. - 1991. Vol. 17 (1). - P. 53.
5. Gerard J. S. A Method for Linguistic Metaphor Identification - From MIP to MIPVU / Gerard J. S. John Benjamins, Amsterdam. - 2010. - P. 25-42.
6. Lakoff G. Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Human Mind / Lakoff G. University of Chicago Press. 1987.
7. Lakoff G. Metaphors We Live By / Lakoff G., Johnson M. University of Chicago Press. 1980.
8. Pragglejaz Group. MIP: A method for Identifying Metephorically Used Words in Discourse. Metaphor and Symbol. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. - 2007. Vol. 22 (1). - P. 3.
9. Semino E. Methodological problems in the analysis of metaphors in a corpus of conversations about cancer / Semino E. // Journal of Pragmatics. - 2004. Vol. 3. - P. 1272.
10. Wayne K. Tinh yeu sau chien tranh / Wayne K., Thai H. A. (ed.). Hoi Nha van. - 2004.
11. Wayne K. Love after war / Wayne K., Thai H. A. (ed.). Curbstone Press. - 2003.
