CC BY
68
UDC 338.46 EDN: DZGBHY
DOI: 10.24412/1995-042X-2022-1-74-89
Ayham Naser KHWAJA
INSTEP training center (Lille, France); Chechen State University (Grozny, Russia) PhD in Economics, Associate Professor; e-mail: tourism@laposte.net
DRIVERS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL TOURISM:
EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE
Abstract. This work is devoted to outline the practices of sustainable tourism development. The article gives the social, economic and environmental consequences as result of the unsustainable and chaotic tourism development. The author investigates the feasibility of sustainable development. Based on the international research and declarations forms of international organizations, this article elaborates the problems in interpreting the terms of "green economy", ".sustainable tourism" and various forms of rural tourism. The article discusses the main problems and the potential for sustainable development of rural tourism based on European experiences. In addition, it identified and justified the necessity of clustering of rural tourism products. The researcher attempts to explain the role of a stakeholder groups in the structure model of the national rural tourism cluster based on the principles of sustainable development. Hence, the goal is to preserve the environment systematically and participatory, leading to gaining socio-economic benefits. This experience is appropriate for supporting the transition towards a green economy sustaina-bly.
Keywords: sustainable development, sustainable tourism, environment, green economy, rural tourism, tourism cluster, European countryside, rural areas, resources, village
Citation: Khwaja, A. N. (2022). Drivers of sustainable development of rural tourism: European experience. Servis v Rossii i za rubezhom [Services in Russia and Abroad], 16(1), 74-89. doi: 10.24412/1995-042X-2022-1-74-89.
Article History
Received 2 December 2021 Accepted 1 March 2022
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
© 2022 the Author(s)
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0). To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
УДК 338.46 EDN: DZGBHY
DOI: 10.24412/1995-042X-2022-1-74-89
ХВАДЖА Айхам Насер
Центр повышения квалификации ИНСТИР (Лилль, Франция); Чеченский государственный университет (Грозный, РФ) кандидат экономических наук, доцент; e-mail: tourism@laposte.net
ДРАЙВЕРЫ УСТОЙЧИВОГО РАЗВИТИЯ СЕЛЬСКОГО ТУРИЗМА:
ЕВРОПЕЙСКИЙ ОПЫТ
Данная работа посвящена изложению практики развития устойчивого туризма. В статье приводятся социальные, экономические и экологические последствия неустойчивого и хаотичного развития туризма. Автор исследует целесообразность устойчивого развития. На основе международных исследований и форм деклараций международных организаций в статье раскрываются проблемы толкования терминов «зеленая экономика», «устойчивый туризм» и различные формы сельского туризма. На основе европейского опыта рассматриваются основные проблемы, потенциал, инструменты и драйверы, рекомендуемые для устойчивого развития сельского туризма. Кроме того, выявлена и обоснована необходимость кластеризации сельских и туристических продуктов. Исследователь пытается объяснить роль стейкхолдеров в структурной модели национального кластера сельского туризма, основанного на принципах устойчивого развития. Следовательно, цель состоит в том, чтобы системно и совместно сохранить окружающую среду, что приведет к получению максимальных, краткосрочных и долгосрочных социально-экономических выгод. Данный опыт целесообразен в целях перехода к зеленой экономике.
Ключевые слова: устойчивое развитие, устойчивый туризм, окружающая среда, зеленая экономика, сельский туризм, туристический кластер, европейская сельская местность, сельские территории, ресурсы, деревня
Для цитирования: Хваджа А.Н. Драйверы устойчивого развития сельского туризма: Европейский опыт // Сервис в России и за рубежом. 2022. Т.16. №1. С. 74-89. DOI: 10.24412/1995-042X-2022-1-74-89.
Дата поступления в редакцию: 2 декабря 2021 г. Дата утверждения в печать: 1 марта 2022 г.
Introduction
Globalization and industrial development have led to the emergence of sociocultural, psychological, physiological problems of mankind, as well as the deterioration of the ecological situation around the globe. Therefore, as a result of sustainable development at the local, regional, national and international level, the ecology, green economy including tourism itself are more and more interconnected in a complex system of causal relationships.
The consequences of the unsustainable and chaotic development of tourism
Tourism can cause the same forms of pollution as any other industry: air polluting emissions, noise, solid waste, garbage, discharge of sewage, oil and chemicals, even an architectural one such as -a visual pollution. According to the various statistics data indicate that, the tourism currently contributes approximately 5.2-12.5% of all greenhouse gas emissions. According to UNEP (United Nations Environment Program), in average each tourist in Europe utilizes 300 liters of still water per day. Though in some high price or brand hotels the number is up to 880 liters daily. The water usage in tourism is for drinking and hygiene, in planting of greenery. Certainly, it is used in hotels for catering and laundry, for swimming pools, SPA, and health centers too1.
Nowadays, in the cycle of the extraction, the process of a conversion of some raw materials into obtaining its output product, 1 kg of a consumed household product accounts for 25 kg of waste [1]. Due to domestic and international tourism, 35 million tons of solid waste are generated annually in the world^The dependence of the region's economy on a tourism leads to a downturn in other economic sectors and the total
disbalance of economy. An unplanned development of tourism can cause serious imbalances in the economy and reduces the employment. This occurs when the concentration of tourist facilities is observed only in certain places, without the development plan in other areas of the country, as well as the outflow of workers from other sectors of the economy (for example, from agriculture) into the tourism sector.
Unplanned tourism can be a trigger to such social problems as tourist segregation, drug addiction, alcoholism, crime and prostitution. However, it is rarely seen as the reason of all these problems2.
Green economy and practices of sustainable tourism
UNEP organization defines the green economy as the result of improving human well-being and forms a social justice, reduces the environmental risks and environmental deficits. The green economy is a low-carbon, resource-efficient and socially inclusive development agenda3. Another definition was proposed by the Green Economy Coalition, which considers the green economy as a sustainable economy that provides the best quality of life for everyone within the ecological boundaries4. Based on the proposed definitions, the following main characteristics of the green economy can be highlighted: environmental friendliness, sociality, efficiency, sustaina-bility. The UN Environment Program (UNEP) pointed out ten key sectors could play important role in achieving a green economy. For instance, farming, housing and utilities, power engineering, fishery, forestry, manufacturing industry, tourism, transportation, waste and water management and water management resources1.
The tourism as listed above has a significant
1Tourism in the Green Economy - Background Report, 2012. URL:
https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284414529 (Accessed on 03, 10, 2021).
2Sustainable Tourism Development: A guide for local planners. Madrid, WTO, 1993. 107 - 10. P 4, 10.
3United Nations Environment Programme. Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, 2011. URL: http://web.unep.org/greeneconomy/sites/unep.org.greeneconomy/files/field/im-age/green_economyreport_final_dec2011.pdf (Accessed on 03, 24, 2021).
4A guide book to the Green Economy. URL: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/GE%20Guide-book.pdf (Accessed on 03, 27, 2021).
contribution and potential for economic development. It is one of the largest highly profitable and most dynamic sector. According to the statistics of World Tourism Organization, the World Tourism and Travel Council bodies before the Covid-19, the contribution of tourism to the world economy is 10,4 % of the world's GDP. The international tourism makes up 7% of the world export of goods and 30% of the export of services. The tourism directly or indirectly affects the development of 32 economy sectors. Total investments made on tourism sector is 7%. Global consumer spending is 11% and 5% of all tax revenues contributed in tourism. In the tourism sector, over 250 million people are employed, which equals to every 10th employee in the world. Every single job in the tourism industry requires another from 5 to 10 jobs in other interrelated sectors. According to UNWTO forecasts, the 21st century becomes a century of tourism domination, with 1.8 billion tourists made by 20305,6.
The term "sustainable development" is introduced by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987. On the one hand, sustainable development is a development that satisfies and fulfils the needs of the current generation. On the other hand, it does not jeopardize the ability of future generations to satisfy their own needs too7.The concept of sustainable development was proposed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, which describes it as - "sustainable development is a process in which development takes place without causing damage to resources and their depletion. Hence this undeniably makes the development possible. Seemingly, it is achieved either by resource management in which they can be renewed at the same speed as they are used. Either by switching from slowly renewable resources to quickly renewable ones. Therefore, this approach allows
resources to be utilized for the needs of both future and current generations"2.
The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) defines sustainable tourism as follows: "The principles of sustainable development represented by environmental, economic and socio-cultural aspects of tourism development. The appropriate balance must be set up among these three aspects in order to guarantee the long-term sustainability"2.Thus, the concept of sustainability can be applied to any form and of tourism. The practice of sustainable tourism is crucial at all stages of planning, managerial and organizational development in order to reduce the negative impact of the tourism industry on the environment and local communities.
Accordingly, the new and trendy forms of tourism appeared to achieve sustainability in tourism. These include: soft tourism, community tourism, solidarity tourism, equitable tourism, responsible tourism, ethical tourism, alternative tourism, green tourism and ecotourism etc.
Sustainable tourism must be differed from the ecotourism. International Ecotourism Society states "ecotourism is a responsible traveling to the natural attractions devoted to preserve nature. It improves the welfare of the local population. The positive reverse effect and the awareness to be educated emerge as result of it. The education is ought to be applied to both the staff and guests"8. Moreover, the World Wild Nature Fund (WWF) offers a different definition: "Ecotourism is traveling to places with relatively no human footprint to the nature. This in order is done to get and explore an idea of the natural, cultural and ethnographic life of the region. Thus this does not violate the integrity of ecosystems and create such economic conditions under which the protection of nature and natural resources become beneficial for the local population
5 UNWTO Tourism Highlights, 2018 Edition. URL: http://tourlib.net/wto/WTO_highlights_2018.pdf (Accessed on 26 Apr., 2021).
6 World tourism organization. 2018 Annual report: URL: http://cf.cdn.unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/annual_report_2016_ web_0.pdf (Accessed on 4 Sept., 2021).
7 Report of the Brundtland Commission, Our Common Future, 1987. URL: http://www.worldforum-sustainability.org/ about-us/declaration/ (Accessed on 7 Apr., 2021).
8The International Ecotourism Society. URL: http://www.ecotourism.org/what-is-ecotourism (Accessed on 26 Apr., 2021).
though"9.The following differences between sustainable tourism and ecotourism can be distinguished: the sustainable tourism can be recognized in both the rural and urban tourism niche. Whilst the ecotourism is mostly depicted in rural and wild tourism niche regions. The sustainable tourism attempts to lessen the negative impact of the tourism industry on the environment and the local communities. While the ecotourism focuses on the environmental conservation and educating tourists and visitors though exploration of the nature. The sustainability development concept can be applied to tourism as whole, but the eco-tour-ism itself is an independent tourism type.
One of the practices, ecotourism uses for the development is a green tourism. "Green tourism is a term used in the practice of sustainable tourism, which provides future needs for sufficient environmental, economic, social and cultural resources" [2, p.7]. "Green tourism, in contrast to ecotourism, which relies on trips to remote places provides local residents with places of vacations in their local regions. Thereby it reduces tourist trips" [3, p. 19-20]. Green tourism has a positive economic effect, stimulates the local economic activity and reduces the outflow of foreign currency. Green tourism emerges new environmental practices in the tourism industry. As a result of it, "green hotels", "green transport", "green restaurants" are the clear examples.
UNWTO understands Rural Tourism as "a type of tourism activity in which the visitor's experience is related to a wide range of products generally linked to nature-based activities, agriculture, rural lifestyle / culture, angling and sightseeing10. In a certain scientific literature, the concepts of "rural tourism", "village tourism", "agritourism" and "farm tourism" are often met. They are usually regarded as synonyms for certain reasons or for the research purposes. At the same time, these are not identical concepts, although they are closely related to each other. As shown
in Figure 1, based on a summary of European literature, the term "rural tourism" is universal to several forms and types of tourism implemented in rural areas in a broader sense.
Rural tourism includes tourism activities implemented in rural areas. Its main peculiarities are:
• natural and climatic resources (flora, fauna, landscape, caves, etc.);
• historical and cultural resources (castles, palaces, historical and cultural monuments, religious monuments, etc.);
• ethno-cultural characteristics of residents (traditions and customs, holidays, handicrafts, culinary, folklore, etc.);
• rural accommodation facilities (rooms, cottages, boarding houses, glamping, camps, small hotels, farmsteads, bungalows, etc.);
• animation and entertainment (various sports, festivals, hunting, safaris, thematic trips, horse and bike rides, etc.);
• traditional and modern rural means of transport (horse-drawn vehicles, boats, balloons, airships, hang gliders, ropeways, etc.).
Village tourism is the tourism activity settled in countryside area (village), and as for the agricultural tourism includes only what is associated with agricultural activities and can demonstrate itself in a various form. Nevertheless, always the rental of house is required. Two basic forms of agritourism are distinguished: renting a house with servicing directly as part of the yard management or self-catering accommodation owned by the yard owners. For example, in campsites and tents. So, this concept is narrower than the previous one. Agritourism with specific kind of agritouristic services is a segment of rural tourism.
Farm tourism includes all forms of tourism directly related to a particular farm, despite the fact if a visitor is going to reside in farm accommodation or not; visiting the farm with a stopover for lunch or seeking experiences from farm operations and attractions and so on11.
9 The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). URL: https://www.worldwildlife.org (Accessed on 14 May, 2021).
10 The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). URL: https://www.unwto.org/rural-tourism (Accessed on 17 May, 2021).
11 Guidelines for the development of rural tourism. URL: http://pribaikal.com/metodicheskie-rekomendatsii-po-razvitiyu-selskogo-turizma.html (Accessed on 19 Mar., 2021).
Fig. 1 - Rural tourism classification [4]
Thus, the rural tourism combines a wide range of different types of tourism in rural areas and offers many tourism services as a tour package. As shown in Figure 2, the farm tourism, agritourism and village tourism are considered as components of rural tourism. They must be integrated into one and stimulate to enrich its product.
Fig. 2 - Correlation between the farm, agri, village and rural tourism
The potential of sustainable development of rural tourism is explained by the fact that the surrounding world with picturesque landscapes and unique natural monuments, diverse flora and fauna, fresh air and crystal water makes it possible to attract tourists' attention. Rural tourism is a powerful potential for the development of outbound and inbound tourism. According to various sources, from 12% to 30% of international tourists prefer rural tourism [5]. It is noteworthy that just the ecotourism industry worldwide (is a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism) was estimated at 181.1 billion USD in 2019. The sector was forecast to reach 333.8 billion USD in 2027, registering a CAGR of 14.3 percent12. According to the OECD, a very rough estimate of the world's international ecotourism arrivals is 7% of the total number of global tourist arrivals13.
It should be noted that these statistics do
12 Statista. Business Data Platform. URL: https://www.statista.com/ (Accessed on 8 Mar., 2021).
13 The World Counts. URL: https://www.theworldcounts.com/challenges/consumption/transport-and-tourism/eco-tourism-statistics/story (Accessed on 11 Mar., 2021).
not include statistics on domestic rural tourism. Rural tourism is mostly developed en European countries, namely: in Italy, Spain, UK, France, Holland, Germany, Czech and Hungary. According to the European Federation of Rural Green Tourism (EUROGITES), rural tourism in the EU countries contributes approximately 20-25% of the total revenue of the tourism industry. This number increases annually. Rural tourism generates 150 billion euros in gross revenue annually. It creates 900,000 direct and indirect jobs, 400,000 guest houses; 35-40% of European citizens prefer rural areas only14,15.
The worldwide gained experience reveals the following problems in the development of rural tourism:
- accessibility to rural areas;
- system of marketing and product sales;
- financing and investments. Financial investments are needed, both at the level of service providers and at the macro level;
- classification and standardization of rural accommodation facilities;
- quality and safety of rural tourism services;
- problematic hosts and guests' relationships;
- land use problems (conservation and development);
- lack of specialized human resource. Apart from the issues mentioned above,
other problems appear to be depending on the different characteristics of the certain region. International experts' studies prove that it is particularly important to establish an effective economic inter-sectoral relation with tourism. An effective tourism management requires the efforts of all involved and interested bodies: the public and private sectors, non-governmental sector, non-profit organizations and tourists. To coordinate these efforts, it is necessary to form the appropriate organizational structures2 [6, 7].
Tools and drivers for rural tourism sustainable development
As shown in Fig. 3, in order to direct the development of rural tourism towards a more sustainable model, public/government entities can offer different direct and indirect financial mechanisms, which include the following tools: subsidies, grants, loans and bank guarantees, capital co-partnership, tax allowance (tax holiday or tax rate reduction) and Budget allowance. There are also non-financial tools used such as: administrative tools (legislation and drafting of generally building regulation), Institutional tools (regional and local strategic documents and development plans of higher territorial units and municipalities), guidance and promotion (marketing) [8].
Based on the Western European experience, rural tourism evolved in association with farming-tourism based on the coexistence of farming activities and accommodation facilities. With regards to non-Western European geographical settings, recent studies provide mixed evidence regarding the level of symbiosis between tourism and agriculture and the extent to which rural tourism may promote economic progress in depressed peripheral areas is still the subject of controversy. Nonetheless, high levels of public funds have been poured in rural areas to support "the redevelopment of redundant farms buildings into accommodation facilities" and to help to convert old family houses into accommodation facilities. In Cyprus and Spain, financial assistance to help owners to restore and convert family houses and "unutilized farm buildings" into rural tourism facilities was critical to 'persuade' managers to 'invest' in rural tourism [9]. The European Union, in particular Italy, Spain, France, Greece, Portugal and Cyprus take advantage of rural tourism to diversify tourist products, to reduce the pressure on beach tourism and on famous attractions, and to contribute to the sustainable development of rural communities.
14 La France agricole. URL: http://www.lafranceagricole.fr/actualite-agricole/tourisme-rural-400-000-gites-en-europe-eurogites-28695.html (Accessed on 3 Mar., 2021).
15 Le tourisme lié au patrimoine industriel et le tourisme agricole/ Rural en Europe. URL: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/ RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2013/495840/IPOL-TRAN_ET(2013)495840(SUM01)_FR.pdf (Accessed on 8 Apr., 2021).
Fig. 3 - Tools and drivers for rural tourism sustainable development
The following drivers for rural tourism sustainable development can be selected.
Tourism villages In addition to the traditional agricultural villages which are based on agricultural way of life as tourist attraction, there are other forms proliferated as models of sustainability, such as eco-villages and organic villages, which led to the enrichment of the rural tourism offer.
An eco-village is an intentional, traditional or urban community that is consciously designed through locally owned, participatory processes in all four areas of regeneration (social, culture, ecology and economy) to regenerate their social and natural environments. Eco-villages come in all shapes and sizes, and can be found across the world: from traditional villages using age-old techniques, to modern settlements built with the latest in ecological innovations [10].
The integration between existing tourism resource and the experience of organic farming through local community empowerment has contributed to the emergence of the successful
sustainable tourism destinations and to the building of a positive image for villages, especially in Europe.
The organic agriculture-tourism advocates for the protection of the environment and natural resources, and also includes the design of activities, organic products, and infrastructure that are related to environmental sustainability for creating diverse environmental values. Notable examples include: the territory of the Hautes-Alpes (France); the organic farms of the Baden-Württemberg (Germany); Socrates organic village (Greece) and the organic farms in the Franches-Montagnes of Jura (Switzerland) to name a few.
Smart village has appeared recently, it is a relatively new concept within the realm of EU policy making. Smart Villages are communities in rural areas that use innovative solutions to improve their resilience, building on local strengths and opportunities16. They rely on a participatory approach to develop and implement their strategy to improve their economic, social and/or environmental conditions, in particular by mobilizing
16 The European Network for Rural Development (ENRD). URL: https://enrd.ec.europa.eu/smart-and-competitive-rural-ar-eas/smart-villages/smart-villages-portal_en (Accessed on 24 Sep., 2021).
solutions offered by digital technologies. The initiation and the implementation of Smart Village strategies may build on existing initiatives and can be funded by a variety of public and private sources. In Smart Villages traditional and new networks and services are enhanced by means of digital, telecommunication technologies, innovations and the better use of knowledge, for the benefit of inhabitants and businesses17.
Agricultural Park. An example could be agricultural parks, innovative and multifunctional, where agriculture is practiced with environmental, landscape, and social functions; they could represent, in the near future, a strategic resource for the tourist enhancement of peri-urban areas. Agricultural Park (Sicily) and the Agricultural Park Sud Milano (Lombardy) are examples of how agricultural parks can play the role of drivers for tourism development. An important element in the realization of the parks was the participation and sharing of the entire process with the local players because it had the merit of intervening in an area and a sector in economic crisis, giving a response that contained as many elements of revitalization as possible [11].
National park
National Parks, because of their scenery, and their brand name, are areas of intense tourism demand, and intense rural tourism activity. Secondly, National Parks have much more sophisticated governance and planning systems than other rural areas. Many national park environments rely on a viable tourism industry to help support and maintain agricultural systems that in turn help maintain ecosystems and landscapes. National parks are important for the local rural communities that are near the national parks, known as "gateway communities". So they have
an impact on both the national economy and local economies through supporting tourism and protecting agriculture.
Today there are more than 6,000 national parks in nearly 100 countries that support wildlife conservation and ecotourism18.
Europe is home to some 460 national parks, yield positive results in the rural tourism development. The newest national park at France's a refuge to 50 million trees, the Parc National de Forêts is a model of sustainable tourism. The park's charter includes a plan for local economic development focused on ecotourism and forestry research. In fact, the Park provides a blueprint for how to create national parks today. It was a decade-long political process of negotiations with farmers, hunters, town councils, and local nonprofits19.
There are other examples of successful practices, such as: Jostdalsbreen National Park (Norway); Hohe Tauern National Park (Austria); Transylvania (Romania); The Biatowieza National Park (Poland)20.
Geoparks. Geoparks as an innovation for geoconservation and rural tourism development, especially geotourism. According to the European Geoparks Network (EGN) charter and Global Ge-opark Network regulations, all geoparks have to be established in rural areas [12]; thus, geoparks and geotourism are opportunities for rural development, and they reduce the rate of unemployment and migration in rural areas, through involving local communities in innovative strategies and geomarketing, such as creating geotours, ge-oproducts, geomuseums, geohotels and geores-taurants. Nowadays, many countries promote geoparks as sustainable destinations, the most successful of them China, Spain, Italy, UK, Germany, France, Japan21.
17 The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). URL: https://www.fao.Org/family-farming/detail/en/c/883236/ (Accessed on 23 Sep., 2021).
18 National Parks of the World. URL: https://worldnationalparks.com/ (Accessed on 12 Aug., 2021).
19National geographic. URL: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/burgundy-champagne-national-park-a-new-model-for-sustainable-tourism (Accessed on 2 Sep., 2021).
20 European Parliament's Committee on Transport and Tourism. Industrial Heritage and Agri/Rural Tourism in Europe. URL: file:///C:/Users/user/Desktop/Appt%20Loos/IPOL-TRAN_ET(2013)495840_EN.pdf (Accessed on 27 Sep., 2021).
21 List of Geoparks & Regional Networks. UNESCO. URL: https://en.unesco.org/global-geoparks/list (Accessed on 28 Sep., 2021).
Network of rural lodgings / lodges. It seems that the main work of the network is the formation of a voluntary chain with a trade mark (label). A common collective brand could be very profitable for a better positioning on the market; joint marketing and promotion actions; efficient distribution (through a central distribution system); to operational and management standards. Finally, in order to enrich the stay and make it more pleasant, other leisure and recreational activities are offered on site and provided via the network, such as canyoning, kayaking, rafting, hiking, climbing, horseback riding and by bike, visits to the estates and wine tasting, water sports, diving, bird watching, skiing and snowboarding. Real life examples are The Guest Inn in Greece and Gîtes de France22,23.
Rural tourist events - are organized for reasons that include the preservation of culture and history, the provision of recreation and leisure, they are also used to combat seasonality of tourism and agriculture.
Research studies confirm that rural tourist events have positive effects on achieving sustain-ability in rural areas, as they have impacts on their communities through the opportunities they provide for; participation, skills development and volunteering [13,14,15]. Rural tourist events are now providing communities and regions with a stake in new or alternative tourism, they have the ability to revitalize, reimage, and expand existing markets and in most cases bring economic benefit to the destination that stages them, they can create stimulus for improving local rural products and service industries, and they also promote a distinction and rivalry between localities and attract tourists to rural areas.
European countries are famous for their rural tourist events. These events bear witness to history, the expression of culture, the desire to meet and feast, sharing a common value. They can come from the folkloric or religious tradition, or simply to commemorate an important event in
history. They can include sports events, agricultural festivals, the celebration of village historic sites, seasonal agricultural crops, local village products and country fairs or world-class urban events and the like. There are thousands of events each year such as the lemon, cherry, olive, beer and wine festivals, grape harvest festivals, apple feast, tomato fight festival, battle of oranges, gastronomy fairs, bulls race, the Holy Sunday, the nativity scene streets, Alpin marathon, balloon festival, game of the bridge, regatta and many more. In each of these examples, the events have shaped the image of the region, become an industry and provided longterm preservation of social, historic and natural environments.
Special attractions - are tertiary element of attraction consisting of built environment by man e.g. museums, entertainment centers, aquariums, athletic stadiums, theme parks, zoos. The different types of accommodation such as hotels, glamping and camping sites can also be categorized as special attraction. The European countryside is characterized by the diversity of these attractions and the quality of their services. It is possible to mention the theme museums that are scattered in rural areas, which express the identity of each village and preserve its, local cultural and industrial heritage, such as: The Museum of English Rural Life, it explores the history of the English countryside and its people; cheese and chocolate museums in Netherlands, France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany and Belgium to name a few. In addition to many small surface museums, there are a few small-scale coal, iron and other heritage underground mines that are open to the visitation. Examples include: The German Mining Museum; Austria's Iron Ore Mine at Eisenerz, in Styria; Italy's Talc and Graphite mine at Scoprimi-niera.
There are also successful experiences in transforming old disused railways into museums, and using the routes for cycle / pedestrian / equestrian leisure and tourism as "greenways"
22 The Guest Inn in Greece. URL: www.guestinn.com (Accessed on 12 Oct., 2021).
23 Gites de France. URL: https://www.gites-de-france.com/fr (Accessed on 14 Oct., 2021).
with great tourism potential with retains its heritage infrastructure, which led to widespread railway heritage tourism, such as The West Somerset Railway (UK) and Vias Verdes railway paths (Spain).
The established entertainment centers with their diverse services, especially theme parks, play an important role in attracting millions of national and foreign visitors and tourists to the European countryside24, which contributed to the revitalization of the neighboring villages. Some examples include: Disneyland Paris is a vacation and recreation resort in Marne-la-Vallee, a new town in the eastern suburbs of Paris; Europa-Park is the largest theme park in Germany, and the second most popular theme park in Europe, after Disneyland Paris; Europa-Park is located between Freiburg im Breisgau and Strasbourg (in neighbouring France); Phantasialand (Germany); Eftel-ing, (Netherlands); PortAventura (Spain); Gardaland (Italy); Tivoli Gardens (Denmark); Alton Towers Resort (UK)25.
National / Regional Rural Networks For instance26,27,28,29, National Rural Networks (NRN) around Europe aim at bringing together stakeholders involved in rural sustainable development projects, including rural tourism. The NRN acts as a channel between the European, regional and local levels. NRN exists to:
✓ Improve the well-being, capacity and resilience of rural communities;
✓ Promote interaction between and action by different rural stakeholders;
✓ Facilitate information flows, exchange of knowledge and sharing of resources in the pursuit of rural development and the implementation of the rural development programme.
Local Action Group and LEADER A Local Action Group brings together individuals from local public, private and civil societies who have been delegated powers of strategy and delivery. Through an agreed Local Development Strategy LAGs are able to make decisions on the allocation of available funds and management of the funds and to tackle important local priorities in a locally specific, innovative and participative way. LAGs are an original and important element of the LEADER approach in Europe.
The LEADER approach was introduced in response to the failure of traditional, top-down policies to address problems faced by many rural areas in EU. The acronym "LEADER" derives from the French phrase "Liaison Entre Actions de Développement de l'Économie Rurale" which means, 'Links between activities for the development of rural economy''. The idea was to engage the energy and resources of people and local organisations as development actors rather than beneficiaries, empowering them to contribute to the future development of their rural areas by forming area based Local Action Group (LAG) partnerships between the public, private and civil sectors. LEADER is implemented by around 2800 LAGs, covering 61% of the rural population in the EU30.
24 Global Attractions Attendance Report. URL: https://aecom.com/wp-content/uploads/documents/reports/AECOM-Theme-Index-2020.pdf (Accessed on 23 Oct., 2021).
25 Blooloop. News source for visitor attractions professionals. URL: https://blooloop.com/theme-park/in-depth/top-theme-parks-europe/ (Accessed on 10 Oct., 2021).
26 The European Network for Rural Development (ENRD). URL: https://enrd.ec.europa.eu/home-page_en (Accessed on 12 Oct., 2021).
27 The Italian National Rural Network for Rural Development. URL: https://www.reterurale.it/flex/cm/pages/ServeB-LOB.php/L/EN/IDPagina/1682 (Accessed on 17 Oct., 2021).
28 National Rural Network (NRN) Social Farming in Ireland. URL: https://www.socialfarmingireland.ie/wp-content/up-loads/2020/01/National-Rural-Network-NRN-Social-Farming-Case-Study-FINAL.pdf (Accessed on 19 Oct., 2021).
29 Ministry of Agriculture and Food in France. URL: https://agriculture.gouv.fr/national-rural-network-driver-rural-areas. (Accessed on 14 Oct., 2021).
30 The European Network for Rural Development (ENRD). URL: https://enrd.ec.europa.eu/leader-clld_en (Accessed on 6 Nov., 2021).
There are seven key features that sum up the LEADER approach:
1. Area-based strategy on rural development;
2. Bottom-up approach with deciding power given to Local Action Groups regarding drafting and implementing rural development strategies;
3. Public-private partnership: Local Action Group (LAG);
4. Innovation activities;
5. Multi-sectorial activities and their implementation;
6. Networking among Local Action Groups;
7. Cooperation projects.
The LEADER Programme accepts applications based on projects which improve:31
✓ Rural tourism (for many years rural tourism has been one of the most strongly supported activities by Leader and its LAGs);
✓ Enterprise development;
✓ Rural towns;
✓ Broadband;
✓ Basic services targeted at hard-to-reach communities;
✓ Rural youth;
✓ Protection and sustainable use of water resources;
✓ Local biodiversity;
✓ Renewable energy.
LEADER represents an ideal method for overcoming some of the challenges involved in rural tourism development, such as the integration of tourism supply through public-private organizations or the coordination of multi-level policies [16, 17, 18, 19].
Geographic and thematic cluster of rural tourism "Wine routes"
The concept is well known and well established in France and Europe. In fact, these tours are tourist routes offered to travelers interested in visiting Greek region. Signage along the roads leads visitors to vineyards, wine factories, workshops and stores of products and culinary
specialties and other tourist attractions (archaeological sites, museums, historical monuments). Activities are offered simultaneously: wine tasting, meeting with winegrowers, trying out traditional local products and local gastronomy. It is therefore an experience of tastes, flavors and knowledge tailor-made, flexible, for each visitor [20]. On this principle there may also exist: the European Route of Industrial Heritage, the olive oil route, the cheeses route and any special local product / resource can be thematic for regional development.
National rural tourism cluster (NRTC)
As it mentioned before, it is highly recommended to form NRTC. Because the cluster policy has proved its positive impact on the development of various sectors of the regional economies worldwide. The purpose of NRTC is to increase the competitiveness within the national tourism industry and to uncurl the agriculture, as well as other sectors of the economy of the region with the protection of the environment from the negative consequences of the development. It is fundamental for the clustering the rural tourism products to pay an attention on the business processes, on the production and complex services based on the innovation. Structurally, the cluster covers the technical, technological, organizational, managerial and institutional innovations.
The cluster structure depends on various characteristics of the region and the reasons why was it formed. The national rural tourism cluster should include private, state and public enterprises that have a connection and influence directly or indirectly on the development of tourism and rural economy of the country.
The following groups of stakeholders can be distinguished in the structure of national rural tourism cluster based on the principles of sustainable development (Fig. 4):
- economic (private) stakeholders: organizers and distributors of tour products (tour operators and travel agents), transport companies,
31 Popal. Government supporting communities. URL: https://www.pobal.ie/programmes/leader-programme-2014-2020/ (Accessed on 11, 03, 2021).
accommodation facilities, catering facilities, cultural and sports facilities, banks, agricultural enterprises, suppliers of raw materials and agricultural machinery;
- sociocultural stakeholders: associations and trade unions of peasant (farmer) farms, associations of artisans, committees and administrations of tourism, associations of tour operators;
- ecological stakeholders: environmental and nature conservation organizations and associations (animal and environmental protection associations; associations of ecologists, geographers, biologists);
- political and administrative stakeholders: regional / municipal representative bodies;
- scientific stakeholders: research institutions, innovation centers and other scientific organizations. With a such cooperation, coordination and integration allows cluster members, on the basis of a synergistic effect, to increase the efficiency of their activities, to quickly introduce new technologies and products.
Fig. 4 - National rural tourism cluster structure based on the sustainable development principles
The Global Network of the NRTC provides a platform of cooperation and exchange between its subsystem elements as specialized regional rural tourism clusters (SRRTC), experts, practitioners, and other stakeholders in rural areas (Fig. 5).
SRRTC
Experts NRTC Stakeholders
Practitioners
Fig. 5 - Network of the national rural tourism cluster
Multi-stakeholder participatory approach, horizontal and vertical networking can find the "missing link" needed to improve the rural tourism and to revitalise rural areas.
Realization of a rural tourism cluster at the national level lead to:
- the emergence of new formats of tourism industry's enterprises
- the emergence of new thematic routes and new types of tourism;
- development of the inbound tourism;
- the development and improvement of the quality of rural and tourism products;
- the promotion of local products in the regional and international markets;
- the development of local businesses and expanding access to finance;
- the influx of investment in rural infrastructure and the transfer of advanced technologies;
- the appearance of a green tourism market and a green economy;
- the usage of more advanced land use methods;
- the conservation of the environment and restoration of cultural heritage sites;
- creating new jobs and reducing seasonality;
- improving the educational level of the local population through retraining and continuing education courses;
- regional innovative development and fill the gap between the over-developed areas and the rural hinterland;
- Strengthening social relations between urban and rural residents, which helps to strengthen the region's economy and improve the living standards of local residents. Accordingly, this reduces the outflow of the rural population to cities.
Considering public-private partnership within the NRTC in financing larger investments for developing sustainable rural tourism can encourage participation of private sector since the risk is shared.
The larger and wider the cluster becomes, the bigger and stronger its relations become, not only within the region, but also with other countries. This allows the region to be included in international trade and tourism processes using the capabilities of the entire region. The main problem solved by the cluster approach is the possibility of sustainable use of all available resources of the region, primarily natural and socio-cultural. The fundamental factors for the development of the cluster approach should be availability of the information for the enterprises and new code of rules must be designed.
In that connection, it should be noted that the level of democracy and local tourism awareness in the region, transparency in dealing, and harmony of interests between Stakeholders determine the range of the success of clustering.
Conclusions
Following the thematic discussions, it can be noted that tourism should not only contribute to the development of the environment, but also be a tool for nature conservation. It should be used as a generator of social and economic welfare and prosperity. Sustainable tourism is associated with the development of any type of tourism and is determined by the combination of its qualities. It contributes to the preservation of the environment, and is also able to subsidize its development and play an important role in creating a
green economy in the region. Rural tourism is a supporting tool for the development of agriculture, and at the same time, agriculture is a tool for enriching tourism products. Investing in eco-greening and the practices of sustainable tourism can lower the cost of energy, water and waste. It adds value to a biodiversity, ecosystems and cultural heritage.
In any case, the demand for all types of rural tourism will continue growing, especially with the emergence of epidemics in the current time, and together with the spreading of the phenomenon of remote work and staycation.
The development of sustainable of rural tourism requires the initiative of the districts and it is necessary to unite and coordinate the efforts of all stakeholders to achieve common goals.
On the basis of available information, it can be stated that of European model of rural tourism development has the following features:
✓ Cooperation / integration between state bodies, business, science, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders to promote sustainable development;
✓ Achieving synergies that result in the creation of innovation factors;
✓ Effective volunteer activity and support of individual initiatives, which indicates the presence of environmental and tourism awareness among the local population;
✓ EU support of rural development programs for all levels government;
✓ State support of rural tourism as the sector of service industry;
✓ Supporting of web-portals and databases of tours and programs, also, the presence of the on -line platforms for sharing new ideas of business and link between rural entrepreneurs;
✓ System of concessional lending and investment support of hosting farms;
✓ Legal and information support of promotion of rural tourist offers;
✓ Organizing rural tourist events, small and large scale on a regular basis.
It is useful to use the cluster approach to develop rural tourism and start with it activating locally and globally in order to support the sustainable recovery of domestic, regional and international tourism.
Socio-cultural, economical, environmental, spatial, innovativeness and political sustainabil-ity are those difference making elements of a NRTC from other tourism activities. The NRTC acts as one of the strategies for the development
of the region's green economy. Through its sustainable management, ensures a balance between development and conservation, also it comes up as a single sustainable green product that contributes to the preservation and revitali-zation of the tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Additionally, it could play a pivotal role helping green recovery programs and enhances the region's integration into the global green economy.
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