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53given. For example: German Schiller - Uzbek "Shiller" "Шиллер".
According to S.G. Barkhudarov, translators in practice use transliteration in conjunction with more transcription (Newton ^Ньютон ).
A.A. Kalashnikov In his article on the "Translation and Tradition of Character Names in the Literature" writes about the widespread use of a mix up of transcription and transliteration in English translation [2].
There is also a combination of transcription and semantic translation in the translation of anthroponyms in fiction, in which case both the phonetic form and the meaning of the anthroponym are conveyed. T.A. Ka-zakova in her book " PRACTICAL BASIS OF TRANSLATION " Dj. Heller cites attempts to translate the character's name in the novel: Chief White Halfoat's name can be translated in a variety of ways, such as transcription - Chif White Hafout; semantic translation - Vojd Belyy Oves (Sardor Oq Arpa); mixed
translation - Vojd White Hafout (Sardor White Hafout). In the novel, the name is translated mixed [3].
Having considered different views, we have come to the conclusion that in today's translation practice it is common to use a mixture of transcription and semantic translation in relation to transliteration, such a combination is called mixed translation and is the most advanced method of translating anthroponyms in fiction.
References
1. Barxudarov L.S. Yazyk i perevod: Voprosy obshchey i chastnoy teorii perevodov. 1975
2. Kalashnikov Alexander Vladimirovich. Translation of significant proper names: Dis. ... Cand. philol. Sciences: 10.02.20: Moscow, 2004 251 p. RSL OD, 61: 04-10 / 1407
3. T.A. KAZAKOVA PRACTICAL BASIS OF TRANSLATION ENGLISH <=> RUSSIAN Saint Petersburg "SOYUZ PUBLISHING HOUSE" ST. PETERSBURG 2001
4. Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia.
USAGE OF COMPOUND WORDS IN ENGLISH
Karimov M.
Researcher,
Namangan Institute of Engineering and Technology
Namangan, Uzbekistan
Abstract
This article is devoted to compound words in English make up a significant part of everyday vocabulary. They are made up of two words with completely different meanings and are often from different parts of speech. To repeat, compound words are made up of two different words, and a new word with a different meaning is formed when they are combined. When it comes to writing compound words, there are different ways to do so: writing them as separate words, as one word, or with a hyphen between them. We will try to explain compound words to researcher who works on this subject area.
Keywords: a compound, a subject, vocabulary, prepositional components, word combinations, non-compounds, metaphorical uses, pronunciation, inflection.
A compound is formed when two words are added together to get a new word. Sometimes the meaning may just add the two words together; a madman is a man who is mad. But usually the meaning of the compound is more than the sum of its parts. In British usage you might guess that a girlfriend is a friend who is a girl, that a sheepdog is a dog that looks like a sheep or that an electric chair is a wheelchair with a motor.
However, the links between the two words in compounds are as complicated as the grammar of the whole sentence. Here are some of the possibilities:
- madman (a man who is mad), blackberry (a particular type of black berry), highchair (a particular kind of chair that is high): the first word is an adjective that adds to the meaning of the noun
- heartbreak (the state of a heart that breaks), snakebite (when a snake has bitten), cloudburst (a storm like a cloud bursting): the first word is a subject that goes with the following verb
- watchmaker (a person who makes watches; bookseller (a person who sells books): the first word acts as the object of the following verb with '-er' added
- fishing rod (a rod for fishing), ironing board (board for ironing), carving knife (a knife that carves): the first word carries out an action of the second.
But there are a large number of other ways of making compounds, illustrated in compounds with dog:
- a lapdog (a dog that sits on a lap, with metaphorical uses),
- a puppydog (a dog which is a puppy)
- a bulldog (a dog which is like a bull)
- a sheepdog (a dog that herds sheep)
- a police dog (a dog used by the police)
-a watch-dog (a dog that watches, with metaphorical uses)
-a hunting dog (a dog used for hunting) etc. Often there are possible pairs of words, one a compound, one a simple combination. Take colours: a white board/a whiteboard the white house/the White House a black bird/a blackbird a black berry/a blackberry a blue bottle/a bluebottle a red cap/a redcap a blue tooth/Bluetooth a black bottom/the blackbottom
This also demonstrates the lack of consistency over how a compound is spelt. Sometimes there is a space between the words, The White House, sometimes a hyphen tea-time, sometimes neither, blackberry. The longer the word has been in English the more likely it is to have lost its space and its hyphen. The OED records a progression from tea bag 1898 to tea-bag in 1936 and teabag in 1977. Pronunciation may be a better guide: compounds tend to be stressed on the first word the White House, non-compounds to have even stress the white house. A famous example debated by linguists is the lighthouse versus the light house, or even better the lighthouse keeper versus the light housekeeper.
Emphasis in Compound Words. As a rule, the emphasis is on the first syllable in compound words. This helps to differentiate between compound words and word combinations, for example, green house and greenhouse. (In the word combination "green house," either word can be emphasized.)
There are many compound words in English. Perhaps you just never paid much attention to them.
Almost every day, compound words are added to the vocabulary, since people - often without even thinking - combine two words to form a single word.
What compound words in English do you know?
Noun-noun compounds
All natural languages have compound nouns. The positioning of the words (i.e. the most common order of constituents in phrases where nouns are modified by adjectives, by possessors, by other nouns, etc.) varies according to the language. While Germanic languages, for example, are left-branching when it comes to noun phrases (the modifiers come before the head), the Romance languages are usually right-branching.
In Uzbek, one way of forming compound nouns is as follows: ishxona (ex: ish+xona in English office); temiryo'l "railway" (temir: iron, yo'l: road-possessive). Some compound words borrows Russian languages. Ex: kinoteater-cinema, fotoapparat -camera or photo camera
Since English is a mostly analytic language, unlike most other Germanic languages, it creates compounds by concatenating words without case markers. As in other Germanic languages, the compounds may be arbitrarily long. However, this is obscured by the fact that the written representation of long compounds always contains spaces. Short compounds may be written in three different ways, which do not correspond to different pronunciations, however:
• The "solid" or "closed" forms in which two usually moderately short words appear together as one. Solid compounds most likely consist of short (monosyllabic) units that often have been established in the language for a long time. Examples are housewife, lawsuit, wallpaper, basketball.
• The hyphenated form in which two or more words are connected by a hyphen. Compounds that contain affixes, such as house-build(er) and single-mind(ed)(ness), as well as adjective-adjective compounds and verb-verb compounds, such as blue-green and freeze-dried, are often hyphenated. Compounds that contain articles, prepositions or conjunctions, such
as rent-a-cop, mother-of-pearl and salt-and-pepper, are also often hyphenated.
• The open or spaced form consisting of newer combinations of usually longer words, such as distance learning, player piano, lawn tennis.
Usage in the US and in the UK differs and often depends on the individual choice of the writer rather than on a hard-and-fast rule; therefore, open, hyphenated, and closed forms may be encountered for the same compound noun, such as the triplets' container ship/container-ship/containership and particle board/particle-board/ particle board.
In addition to this native English compounding, there is the classical type, which consists of words derived from Latin, as horticulture, and those of Greek origin, such as photography, the components of which are in bound form (connected by connecting vowels, which are most often -i- and -o- in Latin and Greek respectively) and cannot stand alone.
Verb-noun compounds
A type of compound that is fairly common in the Indo-European languages is formed of a verb and its object, and in effect transforms a simple verbal clause into a noun.
Also common in English is another type of verb-noun (or noun-verb) compound, in which an argument of the verb is incorporated into the verb, which is then usually turned into a gerund, such as breastfeeding, finger-pointing, etc. The noun is often an instrumental complement. From these gerunds new verbs can be made: (a mother) breastfeeds (a child) and from them new compounds mother-child breastfeeding, etc.
A compound verb is usually composed of an adverb and a verb, although other combinations also exist. The term compound verb was first used in publication in Grattan and Gurrey's Our Living Language (1925).
Some compound verbs are difficult to analyze morphologically because several derivations are plausible. Blacklist, for instance, might be analyzed as an adjective+verb compound, or as an adjective+noun compound that becomes a verb through zero derivation. Most compound verbs originally have the collective meaning of both components, but some of them later gain additional meanings that may supersede the original, emergent sense. Therefore, sometimes the resultant meanings are seemingly barely related to the original contributors.
Compound verbs composed of a noun and verb are comparatively rare, and the noun is generally not the direct object of the verb. In English, compounds such as *bread-bake or *car-drive do not exist. Yet, we find literal action words, such as breastfeed, and washing instructions on clothing as for example hand wash.
In a compound verb (or complex predicate), one of the verbs is the primary, and determines the primary semantics and also the argument structure. The secondary verb, often called a vector verb or explicator, provides fine distinctions, usually in temporality or aspect, and also carries the inflection (tense and/or agreement markers). The main verb usually appears in conjunctive participial (sometimes zero) form.
Compound verb equivalents in English (examples from the internet):
What did you go and do that for?
If you are not giving away free information on your web site, then a huge proportion of your business is just upping and leaving.
Big Pig, she took and built herself a house out of brush.
Analyzability (transparency)
In general, the meaning of a compound noun is a specialization of the meaning of its head. The modifier limits the meaning of the head. This is most obvious in descriptive compounds (known as karmadharaya compounds in the Sanskrit tradition), in which the modifier is used in an attributive or appositional manner. A blackboard is a particular kind of board, which is (generally) black, for instance.
In determinative compounds, however, the relationship is not attributive. For example, a footstool is not a particular type of stool that is like a foot. Rather, it is a stool for one's foot or feet. (It can be used for sitting on, but that is not its primary purpose.) In a similar manner, an office manager is the manager of an office, an armchair is a chair with arms, and a raincoat is a coat against the rain. These relationships, which are expressed by prepositions in English, would be expressed by grammatical case in other languages. (Compounds of this type are known as tatpurusha in the Sanskrit tradition.)
Both of the above types of compounds are called endocentric compounds because the semantic head is contained within the compound itself — a blackboard is a type of board, for example, and a footstool is a type of stool.
However, in another common type of compound, the exocentric (known as a bahuvrihi compound in the Sanskrit tradition), the semantic head is not explicitly expressed. A redhead, for example, is not a kind of head, but is a person with red hair. Similarly, a blockhead is also not a head, but a person with a head that is as hard and unreceptive as a block (i.e. stupid). And a lion heart is not a type of heart, but a person with a heart like a lion (in its bravery, courage, fearlessness, etc.).
On the other hand, endocentric adjectives are also frequently formed, using the suffixal morphemes -ing or -er/or. A people-carrier is a clear endocentric determinative compound: it is a thing that is a carrier of people. The related adjective, car-carrying, is also endo-centric: it refers to an object which is a carrying-thing (or equivalently, which does carry).
These types account for most compound nouns, but there are other, rarer types as well. Coordinative, copulative or dvandva compounds combine elements with a similar meaning, and the compound meaning may be a generalization instead of a specialization. Bosnia-Herzegovina, for example, is the combined area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but a fighter-bomber is an aircraft that is both a fighter and a bomber. Iterative or amredita compounds repeat a single element, to express repetition or as an emphasis. Day by day and go-go are examples of this type of compound, which has more than one head.
In the case of verb+noun compounds, the noun may be either the subject or the object of the verb. In playboy, for example, the noun is the subject of the verb (the boy plays), whereas it is the object in call girl (someone calls the girl).
References
1. Compound Words: A Quick Reference for Everyone by David Raymond Christensen
2. The Semantics of Compounding by Pius Ten Hacken (Editor)
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