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УДК 902
А. А. Нуржанов, И. В. Крупко
Институт археологии имени А.Х. Маргулана, Алматы (Казахстан)
ТЮРКСКАЯ КУЛЬТУРА КАК УНИКАЛЬНАЯ СРЕДА И ПРОДУКТ ЭТНОКУЛЬТУРНЫХ ИМПУЛЬСОВ ВЕЛИКОГО ШЕЛКОВОГО ПУТИ
Целью работы является изучение некоторых аспектов кросс-культурного взаимовлияния Шелкового пути на социально-экономические, военно-политические и религиозные импульсы тюркских государств как этнокультурной среды. Великий шелковый путь занимает особое место в истории развития международных отношений. Он был не только мировой торговой артерией, но также являлся этосом (каналом) дипломатических отношений, обеспечивающим межкультурный коммуникативный диалог между различными странами. Великий шелковый путь проложил так называемый духовно-этнический и эстетический мост для культурной интеграции и морального обогащения различных народов. Формировался большой интерес к товарам, знаниям и культурам друг друга. Поэтому развитие Великого шелкового пути является крупным культурном событием в истории человечества.
Шелковый путь оказал огромное влияние на формирование политического, экономического и культурного устройства стран, через которые он проходил. Одним из глав-
ных достоинств шелкового пути являлось то, что в нем были заинтересованы все страны, расположенные вдоль этих караванных путей в течение длительного исторического периода, так как он развивал экономические, культурные отношения между ними. Каждое государство стремилось к тому, чтобы именно по его территории проходили караванные пути, обеспечивая развитие торговли и процветание страны.
Ключевые слова: Великий шелковый путь, тюркская культура, кочевая цивилизация, кросс-культурные исследования, культ Тенгри, духовная культура тюрков.
A. A. Nurzhanov, I. V. Krupko
Institute of Archaeology named after A. H. Margulan, Almaty (Kazakhstan)
TURKIC CULTURE AS A UNIQUE ENVIRONMENT AND PRODUCT OF ETHNOCULTURAL IMPULSES OF THE GREAT SILK WAY
The aim of the work is to study some aspects of cross-cultural mutual influence of the Great Silk Way to the social-economic, military, political and religious impulses of the Turkic states as an ethno-cultural environment. The Great Silk Way has a special place in the history of international relations. It was not only the global trading artery, but also was the ethos (channel) of diplomatic relations, providing intercultural communication between social, religious and regional groups. The Great Silk Way has made the so-called spiritual — ethnic and aesthetic bridge for cultural integration and moral enrichment of different social groups. It forms a great interest in the products, knowledge and cultures of each other. Therefore, the development of the Silk Way is a major cultural event in the history of mankind.
The Silk Way had a tremendous impact on the formation of political, economic and cultural structure of the territories which it passed through. One of the main advantages of the Silk Way was that all countries located along its caravan routes were interested in it for a long period of history, because it developed economic, cultural relations between countries. Each state aspired to pass caravan routes through its territory, ensuring the development of trade and prosperity of the country.
Key words: The Great Silk Way, Turkic culture, nomadic civilization, cross-cultural studies, cult of Tengry, the Turkic spiritual culture.
DOI: 10.14258/nreur (2018) 3-02
Нуржанов Арнабай Абишевич, ведущий научный сотрудник Института археологии имени А. X. Маргулана, Алматы (Республика Казахстан). Адрес для контактов: arnabai@mail.ru Крупко Игорь Владимирович, младший научный сотрудник Института археологии имени А. X. Маргулана, Алматы (Республика Казахстан). Адрес для контактов: tengri95hismatulin@mail.ru
In the middle of the VI AD a new state formation appears on the political arena in Central
Asia — the Turkic Khaganate. The Turks first occupy the territory from the Altai to the Syr-
Darya, conclude an alliance with Iran and smash the state of the Ephtaliptes, then advance to the Black Sea. Possessing huge wealth received as a tribute from China and during wars, they were interested in developing trade on the Great Silk Way, supporting Sogdian merchants. Since much of the southern routes were under the control of Sassanid Iran, Dizabul Khagan sent an embassy in 567 headed by the Sogdian merchant Maniah in 567 to jointly control the trade routes. However Shah Khosrov I accepted the ambassadors and defiantly burned the silk on the middle of the capital. The second embassy of the khagan was even poisoned [Rtveladze 2001:43]. It was a direct declaration of war. Then the kagan sent an ambassador led by the same merchant Maniah directly to Byzantium, through Bukhara, Khorezm around the northern shore of the Caspian Sea and through the Caucasus. A trade and military agreement was concluded. The Byzantine Emperor Justin II sent a reciprocal embassy led by the strategist of the eastern lands, Zemarh, who even participated in the campaign of the Turks against Iran [Destupis, 1861: 66].
The earliest mention of the city of Talas (Taraz) is contained in the opus of the Byzantine historian Menander Protector.
The significance of this opus was described by Z. Udaltsova "Menander s story about the first acquaintance of Byzantium with the Turkic Khanate of Dizavul is a phenomenon outstanding in early Byzantine historiography. Not for nothing to this day this story is used as a source on the history of ancient Turkic peoples. Menander s work is truly pearl of description of the embassy of the Byzantine diplomat Zimarh in the Land of the Turks. This story is filled with expressively bright, colorful details, to a certain extent can compete with the story of Priske about the Greek Embassy to the court of Attila.." [Udaltsova, 1984: 33].
Thus, stable trade relations were established between the Turkic Khaganate and Byzantium along the northern path. Interesting material traces of trade with Byzantium on the Silk Way were saved. In the medieval cities of Central Asia and Kazakhstan — Byzantine gold coins of the VI-VII centuries were found. In the VI cultural layer of the city of Taraz, a Byzantine gold solid was found. On Av there was a bust of Justinian I in a helmet with a spear in his right hand, his left hand was covered with a shield. Rv depicts the goddess of victory in a chiton holding a long and wide cross [Masson, 1951: 97].
An important role in trading on the Great Silk Way was played by the territories of Kazakhstan. In the VI-VII centuries more frequently used route was from China to the west through South-Eastern and Southern Kazakhstan. That can be explained by several reasons. First the part of this rout (the southern one from the Khingan mountains to the Black Sea coast) was under the control and protection of the Turkic Khagan who managed to ensure complete safety of the caravans. The proof of this is the words of Xuan Jian: . .to the west of Suyab there are several dozens of cities. Each city has its own ruler. Although they are independent of each other, they obey the Turkic khagan" [Bichurin, 1950:125]. Secondly, the Turkic Khagans and the then Turkic society were large consumers of goods. Third, the way through Fergana in the VII century was dangerous because of internecine strife.
A greater number of embassy and trade caravans passed through the Silk Way in the VI-XIV centuries. Over the centuries it had been changing: some sites acquired special significance, while others on the contrary, some cities and trading factories on them fell
into decay. So in the VI-VIII centuries, the main route was: Syria — Iran — Central Asia — Southern Kazakhstan — Talas Valley — Chu Valley — Issyk-Kul — Eastern Turkestan. The branch of this road, another route went to the route from Byzantium through Derbent to the Caspian steppes — Mangyshlak — territories near the Aral sea — Southern Kazakhstan [Baypakov, 1998: 12].
In the Middle Ages the cities and settlements of medieval Kazakhstan were not like a simple transit points. They were exporters of a large number of the most diverse goods of their production — both handicraft and agricultural.
According to written sources, metals and ready-made metal products from ceremonial vessels and precious metals were exported from the possessions of the Turkic khagans to various types of weapons: bows and arrows, swords and armor, leather products, among which were specially marked Taraz leather saddles with high bows, carpets and felts, fabrics and clothing, jewelry from gems and colored glass, medicinal and coloring substances.
The main fact of urban policy during the Great Silk Road in our opinion is the concentration of industry and population in urban centers. For example large cities of that epoch and region — Otrar, Ispidzhab, Taraz, Suyab, Balasagun, according to available sources very developed economically and culturally were large trade and craft centers of urban culture. Description of the city of Balasagun is given in the studies of I. Barolina and other researchers: "A lonely minaret of bizarre brickwork stands out at the northern slopes of the Kyrgyz ridge, in the picturesque valley of Shu river, southwest of the modern city Tokmak. This is the famous Burana tower, an architectural monument of the beginning of the XI century. A small hill hides the ruins of an ancient mosque. The remains of the hillocks and ruins silently testify and there was never a medieval city surrounded by ramparts and decorated with monumental buildings. This city is Balasagun, the first capital of the Turkic state of the Karakhanids, which stretched in the XI-XII centuries on a vast territory from western China to the banks of the Amu Darya river [Margulan, 1950: 30].
Turkic plant ornamentation received on the territory of Eurasia not only among the nomads of the steppe zone, but also in Sui and Tang China, Sogd and in some regions of Byzantine Empire. It became a kind of artistic "language" of the ancient Turkic era and a reflection of social prestige and property status. It is decorated with Sogdian silver vessels and ancient Turkic silver and gilded belts, expensive blade weapons and Chinese silk, clothing of Sui emperor Wen-di and gold headpiece of the Turkic Bilge-khagan. The phenomenon of the spread and popularity of plant ornamentation can be compared only with the spread of "animal style" in the Eurasian steppes in the Scythian-Saks era.
The most popular ornamental motif of the ancient Turks was a twisting shoot with alternately flowing flowers from it. In detail depicted flowers can distinguish a bud of a rhombic form and three much longer and swirling petals. Sometimes the shoot forms a complex symmetrical combination of petals.
Exploring Turkic traditions, one should pay attention to the motif of a rider shooting on the move, turning back — a classic plot reflecting the realities of nomadic life and popular in many forms of art. His appearance in the art of cities is associated with the influence of the nomadic environment [Pugachenkova, 1981:48]. The image of the shooting rider on the run was widely spread also in Sogdian and Iranian art, but in different cases the plot gets a different interpretation and stylistic intonation. For Sogd, a romantic understanding of the image, which,
according to L. I. Rempel is the ideal of the "steppe knight of Central Asia". This manifests itself in a more dynamic, lively interpretation of the plot, the expressive expressiveness of the whole scene: these features in Sogdian art are manifested as a result of the Turkic influence. A classic example of this group is a dish with the image of a "Sogdian horseman" (Vlth — Vllth centuries or the beginning of the VHIth century, the Hermitage). Stylistic features of the image give grounds to consider the dish as a product of the Turk-Sogdian culture.
The Turkic influence was manifested in Sogdian metal circles, and through them in ceramics [Marshak, 1965:68]. An interesting thin-walled pitcher with a wide cylindrical throat and spout-spout. The main composition of the ornament on this vessel is non-intersecting lines. It was cleverly developed by repeating the motifs of the rams horn (koshkar muiz). Ornament of horns, covering the body of the jug, — echoes of the Saka art.
In the Talas valley, long-term processes of interconnection between the sedentary population of cities with a nomadic world contributed to the penetration of nomadic people into the urban environment, "bringing to the art motifs previously used in decorating clothes, homes, household utensils. Thanks to centuries-old ornamental techniques on skin, wood, felt, bone and metal, the Turks, Karluks, Kimaks, Kypchaks and Karakhanids settled in the cities were able to reproduce them on pottery and architecture and thereby promote the flowering of ornamental art [Senigova, 1974: 35].
In Zhetysu there is a monumental sculpture of ancient Turks with a bird in hand instead of a bowl or goblet, female figures. Such stylistic signs as a gender-specific image of the fingers, of the hand holding the bowl, the curved line of the eyebrows, almond-shaped eyes were common in Zhetysu and could appear under the influence of Sogdian art.
The influence of the Turkic artistic culture was manifested not only in the toreutics — the kind of art traditionally highly developed among the steppe tribes, but also in such purely "urban" types as the carved pieces of Kulan, Suyab, and Lower Barskhan. Four voluminous clay heads, which probably were portraits of real people — men of noble Turkic origin. Such portraits of men with a distinct personality can be seen among the coroplastics of Sogd and Usrushany of the Vlth-VIIth centuries.
In the Tang epoch on to the Great Silk Way this a nomadic or steppe civilization was a full-fledged cultural partner of China.
In the province of Hansu in the PRC (where the Usuns lived until they migrated to the valley of the lie River) in 1969 a bronze statuette of a horse was discovered. He was found in a burial ground, which is worn out by the Han period. A bronze statuette depicts a horse in the distance of a swift run, also a flying bird depicted under the hoof of the hind legs. Scientists call this outstanding cultural monument a "racing horse" or "a swiftly-galloping horse trampling a flying swallow". Today, the figure of the bronze horse is a fine symbol of the Eurasian Silk Road for the Chinese people. This is another indirect proof that for the Chinese this way was "horse", and "silk" it became for the Europeans who opened it.
In the VI-X centuries. Chinas relations with the Turkic Khaganates which arose on the territory of Mongolia, were established, and then the horse, spread throughout the Great Steppe during the Turkic period of history, was raised to an unattainable height. Let's turn to the carved lines of the monument to Kul-Tegin in the translation of S. E. Malovo. In that sourses described thirteen legendary battles of Kul-Tegin. At the same time, he performed his first feats at the age of 16 on foot, was awarded the title of "hero". In 21 year he was could
rush on enemies, apparently, on the horse "corresponding to the hero". When this horse fell Kul-Tegin sat on a horse of white suits nine times, once on bay and twice — brown and once on a gray horse. He used the horses of Shalchi of white suit, Kyl-Tegin fought three or four times on them. The word "shal" in the ancient Turkic language means the same as the "Alp", the brave one, the man, the hero, the sharp shooter [Ancient Turkic Dictionary, 1969:32,115].
Another problem is development of the Turkian culture under the influence of the Great Silk Way. She was in wide contact with the mighty countries of other nations of the world. And, as the researchers write, "these connections increased as the influence of the Turks increased in Central Asia" [Stebleva 1984: 265]. On the example of the Oguz heroic legends "The Book of My Grandfather Corkut" we see the objective world and the ideas of the Silk Way. A whole galaxy of remarkable geniuses of Turkic classical artistic thought presented mankind with the Great Silk Way in the highest period of its development.
One of the highest achievements of the epoch was the creation and wide dissemination of ancient Turkic writing, which had two essential and indisputable merits — autochthonism and authenticity [Kumekov, 2001: 232]. Hundreds of written monuments were preserved in Altai and Mongolia, Khakassia and Tuva, in Eastern Turkistan and Zhetysu, in Volga valley and on the Danube. Ancient Turkic writing was the most adapted to convey the phonetic patterns of Turkic languages and dialects. Obviously, the need for writing arose from the needs of administrative, economic and diplomatic practice, from the need to fix government acts and traditions.
For Zhetysu the Manichean work in Turkic language is distinguished. It is the colophon of the manuscript "Iki yyltyz nom (Sacred Book of Two Foundations), rewritten in Taraz in the middle of the ninth century. The composition belongs to the didactic genre [Klyashtorny, 1992: 357].
The largest of the philosophers — encyclopaedists of the second half of the 10th century, was Abu Nasir al-Farabi at Turki (about 870-950 gg.), the son of a Turkic military chief, originally from Farab (Otrar). Al-Farabi received his primary education in his hometown, continuing it in Bukhara, Damascus, Baghdad. Was not only mastering the heritage of the ancient Greek philosophers, but also managed to convey it to the peoples of Central Asia. Al-Farabi wrote a number of original works and many scholars of the Middle Ages considered him their teacher. In the comments to Aristotle's "Metaphysics", "The Basic Ideas of Philosophy", "On the Views of the Citizens of the Modern City", and in other works of al-Farabi, he examines a number of important questions about the essence of cognition, the nature of human society the origin of the state and the causes of social inequality.
Philosophy of al-Farabi was not distinguished by consistency, materialistic tendencies were fantastically intertwined with idealistic ones. However, the social-utopian views of al-Farabi, humane and progressive in their basis, played an important role in the development of world science [Kumekov, 1979: 101-102].
Special attention should be paid to the creative work of two outstanding Turkic-speaking scientists, encyclopedists, philosophers, writers of the Karakhanid Khanate Yusuf Khas-Hajib al-Balasaguni and Mahmud ibn-Hussein Mahmud al-Qashgari. Their literary and scientific heritage has been studied for more than one century, historiography has dozens of works. The emergence of them in this era is a natural phenomenon, for the Turkic world to the XI century reached the apogee of socio-political, economic and cultural life.
The research of the East in the Middle Ages by the scientists is the evidence of its advanced role. However, the deep sides of this phenomenon are marked by more relief events, which have proved the progressive influence of humanistic tendencies. In this respect, the well-known scholar V. Bartold observes that "one of the main cultural merits of the Turk-Muslims was creation of an extensive literature.." [Barthold, 1993:123].
The material and spiritual culture of Turks passed through several stages of its evolution, on the other, like any culture, developed in active interaction and mutual influence with the cultures of other peoples, both related nomadic and settled (Sogdian, Chinese). Both these processes are reflected in the archaeological material. Ancient Turks, having united, even for a short period, most of Eurasia within the framework of the First Turkic Khaganate, promoted the activation of intercultural and interethnic contacts. Undoubtedly, the functioning of the Great Silk Road played a significant role in this. As a result of active contacts, trade, many categories of subjects of close cultures are leveled [Nurzhanov, 2007: 115-118].
The Great Silk Way had the great economic and political importance in the life of the peoples of Asia and Europe. Its history is a history of broad cultural interaction and interchange between the people of the East and the West. It proves that close cooperation and mutual enrichment of cultures are the basis of peace and progress for all mankind. For the first time in the history of mankind, he connected various countries and peoples, connected their material, artistic and spiritual culture.
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УДК 398.223 (224); 398.541 (543) А. Д. Ямаева
Институт стратегических исслелований Республики Башкортостан, Уфа (Россия)
ПЕРЕДНЕАЗИАТСКИЙ СЛЕД В ЭТНОГЕНЕЗЕ БАШКИР5
Рассматриваются древние переднеазиатские этнокультурные компоненты, оставившие след в фольклоре, языке, геномике башкир. В качестве исторических источников использованы эпос «Урал батыр», шежере (родословные) башкирского племени усер-ган, языковой материал. Для сравнительного анализа привлечены легенды и предания каракалпакских мюйтенов, шумеро-аккадский эпос о Гильгамеше. Основной методологической концепцией стала теория локальных цивилизаций. В качестве методики исследования использованы типологический, сравнительный, интеграционный подходы. В работе для доказательства этногенетических связей между башкирами-усерга-
5 Публикация подготовлена в рамках выполнения государственного задания Центра социокультурного анализа Института стратегических исследований Республики Башкортостан за 2018 г.
