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Diego Forte. To the Faithful Declassed: Health Risk as Speciesist Camouflage// Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. - T.3, №2,2017
УДК 81 Diego Forte
DOI: 10.18413/2313-8912-2017-3-2-25-35
TO THE FAITHFUL DECLASSED: HEALTH RISK AS SPECIESIST CAMOUFLAGE
University of Buenos Aires, 439 Paseo Colón Ave. City of Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1063
dforte@filo.uba.ar
Abstract. The concept of "declassed" usually refers to human animals in a marginal situation, this is, it is a lexical item with the [+ human] feature. Western dominant discourse does not use the term "marginal" to refer to nonhuman animals because it integrates them into a lower category: they are objects or belongings with no resemblance to a live being. So, their identity is denied and they become entities without needs or abilities of living beings, unless their representation refers to something risky or dangerous for humans. In this case, they seem to be a risk because they are alive.
The present work aims to analyze the construction of speciesist representations in graphic press speaking about homeless dogs. We will take as a starting point the hypothesis that these representations construct the concept of "homeless animal" as a sanitary risk for the human species and, therefore, nonhuman animals are described as the enemy and their resemblance is not the resemblance of a live being. We will analyze three texts, extracted from the digital versions of three different newspapers, published in different countries and written in different languages. We will adopt Social Semiotics by Hodge and Kress [1988] as the main theoretical framework. In order to cover both verbal and visual material, the development of the analysis will adopt the tools proposed by Hodge and Kress [1993] for the assignment of thematic papers and description of processes in the verbal material together with the elements systematized by Kress and van Leeuwen [1996] for image analysis and Ekman [2003] and Kendon [2004] for gestural analysis. Key words: Speciesism; CDA; Social Semiotics; social representations.
1. ECOLINGUISTICS: SPECIECIST
DISCOURSE AND COGNITIVE
STRUCTURES
The term "speciesism" first appeared in 1970 in a pamphlet written by Ryder [1998], a philosopher belonging to the Oxford Group, and from then on has been used to refer to discrimination based on species. But discrimination against other species can be traced back to classical antiquity. Aristotle, in Politics stated:
Plants exist for animals, and other animals, for the benefit of man; The domestic ones for their use and their food, and the savages - if not all, at least most of them - to serve as food and other purposes, to offer both clothing and other utensils. Therefore, if nature does nothing imperfectly or in vain, it is necessary that all such beings exist naturally for the benefit of man [1999, p. 13].
Judaism and Christianity maintained the same status for animals, granting them a place of simple service to man. Then the automatism of Descartes removed their soul and consciousness, transforming them into robots. This perspective, whose reminiscences are still felt, considers them totally devoid of understanding and incapable of
experiencing pain, pleasure or other sensations or emotions.
On the other hand, in the late 1990s, Ecolinguistics made its appearance as a new paradigm of research, taking into account not only the social context in which a language is embedded but also the relationship societies establish with the natural environment. This approach can be characterized as a form of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) committed to the study of the verbal connection between humans and other animals. It explores the role of language in the interaction among the human species, other species and the environment in which they develop. Although these analysts start from the theoretical framework provided by CDA, their perspective is broad, including proposals from other disciplines that take, with a critical view, the relationship between language and biodiversity as object of study. As an analytic perspective, Ecolinguistics seek to deconstruct the speciesist representations in order to dismantle the automation their meanings provoke, to show that these meanings are not natural but the product of particular power relations.
In Western world, speciesist representations are a part of the dominant discourse [Raiter, 2003,
Diego Forte. To the Faithful Declassed: Health Risk as Speciesist Camouflage// Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. - T.3, №2,2017
P. 167], which imposes its discriminatory logic by turning them into objects, denying them identity, and not recognizing them as a living beings. Social representations in the common sense of a given society circulate meanings that are considered absolute and indisputable for the members of that given society [Raiter, 2003, P. 140]. In the minds of speakers these representations are completed in a consistent whole [Raiter, 2003, P. 141] and form cognitive structures, belief systems, which shape their worldview. In other words, mental representations provide the framework to constitute the stories that order and guide the way we live:
The stories we live by are different, however. We are exposed to them without consciously selecting them or necessarily being aware that they are just stories...Importantly the stories-we-live-by influence how we act in the world - if nature is seen as a resource then we may be more likely to exploit it, or if economic growth is seen as the primary goal of politics then people's wellbeing and the ecosystems which support life may be overlooked. The role of the form of ecolinguistics ... is to analyze texts to expose the underlying stories, and then consider carefully how they encourage us to act. [Stibbe, 2015, P. 9-10].
Although Ecolinguistics is much more than animalistic studies, these have experienced a significant growth during the past decade. The so-called "animalistic turn" in academic research has managed to move between humanistic disciplines, fine arts and social sciences, even reaching fields such as psychology, philosophy, anthropology, political science and sociology and literature, history, critical and cultural studies, as well as on geography, feminism and The Queer theory. [Best, 2013, P. 3].
2. THE DECLASSED
The concept of "declassification" implies an individual not included in any class. When there is no will of the individual to self-exclude, that non-inclusion is constituted as a prejudice: the individual does not meet the characteristics that power requires for inclusion. According to Bourdieu there are different types of capital, social class is defined by the capital accumulated by individuals. Thus, capital is understood by Bourdieu as a force that determines what is possible and what is not. The distribution structure of the different types of capital, at a given point in time, corresponds to the immanent structure of the social world, that is, to the totality of forces inherent to it, and by which the social reality functions [2000: 132-133].
Nonhuman animals are inserted into capitalism as commodities, they have exchange value. They cannot accumulate capital: they are something to be accumulated. A given number of cattle means wealth. Dogs or cats of a certain pedigree go hand in hand with social status. And so forth. But a possibility of agency is contemplated for them: the can adopt the characteristics of live risk. The can move and act as something dangerous, as something that mines human security. They can attack, transmit diseases, eat our food or drain our resources. So, when they cannot be accumulated they need to be controlled or destroyed for human safety.
3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This research will take as a theoretical framework Social Semiotics proposed by Hodge and Kress [1988]. According to these authors, meaning resides in different systems, in several codes, so the analysis of the verbal dimension is not enough [1988, P. vii]. A theory about verbal language must be placed in the context of all socially constituted systems of meaning. Thus communication must be seen as a process rather than as a cluster of meanings. These meanings are produced and reproduced in the context of specific social conditions through different means and by different agents. They exist in relation to concrete subjects and objects and can only be explained in terms of the relations they contract with each other.
Society is typically constituted by structures and relations of power, exercised or resisted; it is characterized by conflict as well as cohesion, so that the structures of meaning at all levels, from dominant ideological forms to local acts of meaning will show traces of contradiction, ambiguity, polysemy in various proportions, by various means. So for us, texts and contexts, agents and objects of meaning, social structures and forces and their complex interrelationships together constitute the minimal and irreducible object of semiotic analysis. [Hodge & Kress, 1988, P. viii].
In this context, communicative practices are defined in terms of their linguistic resources, that is, sound, spatial and visual elements. In order to cover both verbal and visual material, the development of the analysis will adopt the tools proposed by Hodge and Kress [1993] for the assignment of thematic roles and description of processes in the verbal material together with the elements systematized by Kress and van Leeuwen [1996] for image analysis and Ekman [2003] and Kendon [2004] for gestural analysis.
Diego Forte. To the Faithful Declassed: Health Risk as Speciesist Camouflage// Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. - T.3, №2,2017
4. CORPUS
The analysis will be carried out on three graphic press notes, belonging to three different newspapers, from three different countries and written in three different languages:
- Callejeros con seguro médico (stray dogs with health insurance). This story appeared in the digital version of the Argentine newspaper Página 12, on 11/29/2016 and were signed by Nicolás Romero. It is written in Spanish.
- En France, une législation stricte gère la population des chiens errants (In France, strict legislation manages the population of stray dogs). Appeared in the digital version of L'Expres, France, on 03/01/2017. It is an editorial note, no sign, and it is written in French.
- India has 30 million stray dogs. In one state, vigilantes are being pushed to kill them. It was published by The Washington Post website, USA, 01/21/2016. Signed by Rama Lakshmi, text in English.
The selection of the corpus was made taking into account the need to inquire about the way in which different western societies construct speciesist representations using the resources provided by three Indo-European languages. Having in mind the common origin and the relationship among this three languages (that, on the other hand, are the most widespread European languages) seemed useful to understand the use of resources in this languages to build up discriminatory representations.
5. HYPOTHESIS
As mentioned before, this paper aims to analyze the construction of the speciesist positioning in a corpus of journalistic notes on homeless animals. We will start from the hypothesis that the speciesist representations prioritize the position of threat or sanitary risk in the discursive construction of nonhuman animals, granting them the place of affected within the eventual structure. They will be constructed as passive objects, with no possibility of choice or action, unless they are considered a health risk.
6. ANALYSIS
6.1. STRAY DOGS WITH HEALTH INSURANCE
The story appeared on November 29, 2016 in the website of the Argentine newspaper Página 12, in the section Sociedad (society), column Derechos de los animales (Animal Rights). It is signed by Nicolás Romero. Next, we will describe the conformation of its actional and relational systems.
Table 1
Processes
Transactive Non transactive Relational
б5 2б 2б
Actors in actional processes Actor
Berazategui La clínica veterinaria
Los vecinos
Fernando Ghersinich, médico veterinario y
coordinador de los consultorios de la
clínica
El municipio
cualquier vecino
El médico
El municipio
process
controlará Comenzó a implementar alimentan explicó
monitorea Pueda reconocer Resaltó
Vacuna, desparasita, castra, registra
Affected
Perros vagabundos El registro de perros comunitarios Aquellos [perros] Lo ideal es que no haya perros
Al animal La caravana
La necesidad del control de la población canina A los perros
Entities in relational processes
Entity 1 relation
Los perros sin dueño Serán
Cada uno tendrá
Los perros callejeros son
El número de identificación está
Entity 2
Desparasitados, vacunados y castrados Su historia clínica Un problema sanitario Asociado a una historia clínica
Diego Forte. To the Faithful Declassed: Health Risk as Speciesist Camouflage// Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. - T.3, №2,2017
La caravana La población
es es
Un dispositivo liviano Demasiado grande
Dogs as actor
Actor Process
Un perro callejero Victimizó
Un perro callejero Mordió
Los perros actúan
Los perros impiden
Affected
Al intendente Patricio Mussi Lo
Como barrera biológica La difusión de enfermedades
Two classes of dogs are represented as actors in the story: 1. Dogs that go to resorts and restaurants, 2. The others, the declassed ones that represent a sanitary risk. Under the category "affected" are represented the stray dogs that are took by the program of the municipality, which puts them in treatment and release them with a mark in the ear. These also appear involved in relational processes. They are only agents in two cases: 1. Attacking the intendant Patricio Mussi, and 2. Being used to fight dogs from other municipalities, that is, as a sanitary barrier.
In addition, when participating in relational processes, their identity is subsumed by some element that classifies them, either associating them with a brand (the mark, the caravan) or integrating them into a collective group (the population).
According to the text, unowned dogs are presumed of carrying diseases and pose a health risk. Under this logic, actions are not carried out for the welfare of street dogs but because they represent a risk to the human population: they transmit diseases. But this central idea is camouflaged as a charitable action towards stray dogs.
The following quotation from Fernando Ghersinich, taken from the text, shows that the intention behind the program is not to benefit animals but a sanitary measure in relation to the human population:
lo ideal es que no haya perros en la calle, pero la realidad es que hay muchos y son un problema sanitario, por eso desarrollamos el programa que consiste en la colocación de una caravana (un botón plástico) en la oreja del perro, que es como el que se utiliza en grande animales, pero más chicos. Es un dispositivo liviano, para que no le moleste, redondo y de color amarillo, que tiene un número de identificación que está asociado a una historia clínica... se decidió el uso de una caravana y no de un chip -aclaró el veterinario- porque la idea es que cualquier vecino pueda reconocer la caravana, que significa que es un animal monitoreado por el municipio, ver el número que identifica al animal, y llamarnos. En cambio, el chip se implanta bajo la
piel, y se necesita un lector para accederlo... la población es demasiado grande y no hay espacio físico para albergar a todos, por eso la castración", remarcó y explicó que "al estar vacunados y desparasitados, como son territoriales y compiten con otros perros que vienen de afuera, actúan como barrera biológica impidiendo la difusión de enfermedades.
The best scenario would be no dogs on the street, but the reality is that there are many and they are a health problem, that's why we developed this program that involves the placement of a caravan [a plastic button] in the dog's ear, which is Like the one used in large animals, but smaller. It is a light device, not to disturb, round and yellow, which has an identification number that is associated with a medical record ... it was decided to use a caravan and not a chip, said the veterinarian, because the idea is that any neighbor can recognize the caravan, which shows that it is an animal monitored by the municipality, you can see the number that identifies the animal, and call us. Instead, the chip is implanted under the skin, and a reader is needed to access it ... the population is too large and there is no physical space to accommodate everyone, that is why castration is performed, he remarked and explained that being vaccinated and dewormed, as they are territorial and compete with other dogs that come from outside, they act as a biological barrier preventing the spread of diseases1.
In addition, some lexical pieces deserve particular attention: declassed and Community dogs.
The concept of declassification gives the dogs the [+ human] feature, but in a negative way. It involves a process in which one participant loses its status, what is to say, an agent "declasses", removes the class or status to another. In this way, stray dogs are homologated to the situation of the lower class of human animals. But, on the other hand, as we have seen, these dogs are not themselves agents in processes involving them, unless those processes have negative consequences on human animals. This
1 Translation mine.
Diego Forte. To the Faithful Declassed: Health Risk as Speciesist Camouflage// Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. - T.3, №2,2017
would justify its treatment in terms of human benefit and its use as a sanitary barrier. Also, the dogs that entered in the municipal program are called community dogs. But this status is related to the neighborhood identification, to the fact that each neighbor can identify the "caravaneados" and remain calm because they do not represent a risk for health. So, in the end, it is more a question of political claimings than of public service.
Image Analysis
Image 1. A sad dog on white background
The picture that illustrates the text shows a sad dog on white background. The dog seems abstracted
from the context to highlight a sad facial expression [Darwin, 1872, P. 53]. He/she is looking down to front camera. Picture focuses on the face, most of the body is out of focus. He/she shows signs of scabies on ear and nose. The image tries to humanize the image of the dog, at the same time interpellating the reader with the mix of illness and sadness showed. The process represented by the image [Kress and van Leuween, 2005] is given established between the dog and these traits of illness and sadness, forming a symbolic process.
6.2. IN FRANCE, UNE LÉGISLATION STRICTE GÉRE LA POPULATION DES CHIENS ERRANTS.
Editorial note appeared on 3/1/2017 on the website of L'Expres. It is not signed.
Table 2
Actional and relational systems
Processes
Transactive Non transactive Relational
40 io i7
Actors in actional processes Actor
Jean-François Legueulle, délégué générale de la Fondation 30 millons d'amis Jean-François Legueulle, délégué générale de la Fondation 30 millions d'amis
La mairie ou la municipalité La mairie ou la municipalité La mairie ou la municipalité
Certains refuges Notre fondation
Le gouvernement
Process
répond
présente
Prise en charge
Transfert
Recherche
euthanasier Aide
euthanasies
Affected
Cette question
Un état des lieux de la situation ainsi que des solutions
Chien errant signalé L'animal
La fourrière de son propriétaire Les chiens
Les 300 structures d'accueil
ou refuges
Les chiens errants
Entities in relational processes Entity 1
Le nombre de chiens errants
La situation
Les chiens errants
Leur surpopulation
Les seules méthodes efficaces
l'éducation des propriétaires
Relation
oscillerait Est
représentent
Est
Sont
Est
Entity 2
Entre 100 et 150 millions
Alarmante
Une menace
Evitée
L'identification, la stérilisation et la vaccination des chiens
Primordiale également
Diego Forte. To the Faithful Declassed: Health Risk as Speciesist Camouflage// Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. - T.3, №2,2017
In this case, stray dogs do not perform agentive functions in the text. These functions are granted to participants with the [+human] feature (Jean-François Legueulle, les propriétaires) or to entities also conformed by humans [the mairie, the municipalité, l'Union Européene].
There are a few relevant grammatical metaphors to be considered: une menace, le bien-etre animal.
Image analysis
The concept of threat (menace) implies a process in which one participant with the feature [+ agent] threatens another with the [+affected] feature. This nominalization is the only mention the text makes to the agentivity of stray dogs. Again, as in the previous text, when dogs are agents they harm humans.
Image 2. Five sad dogs in a low neighborhood
Five sad dogs in a low neighborhood. Photo without marked effects. Looking to portray the urban context: dogs living in a poor neighborhood. Grey Sky. Suggestive symbolic process [Kress and van Leeuwen, 1996, P. 85]. Symbolic processes show what a participant means. The suggestive symbolic processes have only one participant and represent the meaning and identity coming from within, deriving from the participant itself. In this case, the five dogs function as a single participant, representing the situation of poverty and marginalization in a city context.
6.3. INDIA HAS 30 MILLION STRAY DOGS. IN ONE STATE, VIGILANTES ARE BEING PUSHED TO KILL THEM.
Note signed by Rama Lakshmi, appeared on October 21, 2016 in the digital version of The Washington Post.
Table 3
Actional and relational systems
Processes
Transactive Non transactive Relational
93 12 23
Actors in actional processes
Actor Process Affected
The dogcatcher tightens Its neck
He Pulls out Five puppies
Mobs hire Professional catchers
Diego Forte. To the Faithful Declassed: Health Risk as Speciesist Camouflage// Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. - T.3, №2,2017
He Will kill
A group of men killed
The dog
Jose Maveli
Anti-dog activists
A medical student
A dog
A street dog
The neighbors Kerala
killed thinks show
Flings
bite
All the animals Several dogs Half the ducks
Roaming strays endanger public safety
Snarling canines and gruesome images of people with bite wounds
A stray puppy
7-year old Ayoos Sajimon
Pressed its paws His chest on
killed sterilize
The dog Street dogs
Entities in relational processes
Entity 1 Relation
India Has
Widesprad killing Is
Jose maveli is
The roaming strays Are
Street dogs Are
Animal lovers Are
Dogs Are
My son Is
The only scientific thing to do Is
An average of 11 per dog Is Poor collection of garbage in the cities Is
Dogs as actors Actor
The dog
The dog
Process
killed
Has been growling
Entity 2
30 million stray dogs
Un acceptable
Founder of the stray dogs eradication society
About 250000
A common nuisance
On the defensive
In an absolute state of fright
So traumatized
Sterilization
Inadequate
The main reason
Affected
Half the ducks At his 10-year-old-son
Diego Forte. To the Faithful Declassed: Health Risk as Speciesist Camouflage// Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. - T.3, №2,2017
Dogs bit
A pack of stray dogs attacked
A dog A street dog A street dog
bite
Pounced on
Young children and elderly people An elderly woman 7-year-olkd Ayoos Sajimon Him
Pressed its paws His chest on
A street dog bit
In this story, the actors come from the various sectors involved: citizens, government, activists and dogs. Although again, dogs only show the [+ agent] feature when they participate in processes that harm humans.
A relevant grammatical metaphor to consider: Euthanasia for dogs.
This concept appears here associated to the idea of threat. Again, it involves an agent participant who would act upon an affected one euthanazing him/her. In any case, the text fails to specify sanity reasons
face and eye
that motivate euthanasia, but rather poses a war between the citizens of Kerala and stray dogs in which all other description seems marginal. Even the determinations of the authorities or the actions of the animal activists.
Image analysis
The text is illustrated with three images: 1. A dogcatcher with the three puppies.
Image 3. A dogcatcher with the three puppies
The dog-hunter holds his prey. IN terms of Kress and van Leewuen [1996] this is an analytical process. If the photograph would not illustrate a note about the hunting of dogs in Kerala it could be granted a totally different meaning. Because of this, it must be considered that the relation with the verbal text is essential for the assignment of meaning to this image. Taking into account the above mentioned, we can consider that the photograph presents a process
of classification from the category of opposites: hunter / hunted. The position of the camera and the size of the shot establish a relationship that does not imply remoteness with the viewer, although they do not question it either, since the hunter's gaze does not seek the camera. According to Rulicki and Cherny [2011], the face of the hunter manifests a neutral expression, without movements of emotion.
Diego Forte. To the Faithful Declassed: Health Risk as Speciesist Camouflage// Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. - T.3, №2,2017
2. An attacked kid with his mother showing wounds.
Image 4. An attacked kid with his mother showing wounds
Ayos Sajimon and the wounds caused by the attack of a dog. This picture shows an attributional symbolic process: what an element is or means and consists of two participants: 1. The relational entity and 2. The participant that represents the meaning of the identity itself (the symbolic attribute). The wounded child is the element that carries meaning and his mother is the one who is showing it. In this case, both the child and his mother function as meaning-related entities wounded by dog attacks. Human participants in attributive symbolic processes pose for the viewer. They are there for the sole reason of being shown to the public. In addition, the child looks at the camera, establishing with the viewer a relationship of closeness, interpellating it, forcing it to take part in the meaning. On the other hand, and consequently with the display rules for Hindu society [Rulick and Cherny, 2011] the faces of Ayos and his mother manifest the seriousness of the subject: Ayos manifests a neutral expression, without facial movements of emotion. Her mother also does not display any expression of emotion, although she is not the focus of the camera but, as mentioned before, she is presenting her son.
3. Map of Kerala.
This picture represents a suggestive symbolic process in terms of Kress and van Leeuwen [1996, P. 85]. Symbolic processes show what a participant is or means.
Image 5. Map of Kerala
Diego Forte. To the Faithful Declassed: Health Risk as Speciesist Camouflage// Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. - T.3, №2,2017
Suggestive symbolic processes have only one participant (comparable, sometimes, to existential processes in verbal language). They cannot be interpreted as analytical because the details are not often emphasized, but something that we can call "humor" or "atmosphere." This is what gives the suggestive paintings their generality, their quality of showing not a specific moment but a generalized essence.
The suggestive symbolic processes represent the meaning and identity coming from within, deriving from the entity's own qualities, while the attributive symbolic processes represent the meaning and identity being conferred on the entity.
In this case, the map not only indicates the geographical position of the situation but also its socio-political context. Given that this is probably a place unknown to the Washington Post public, geographic identification is more than useful. But, at the same time, it activates the representations associated with India in the common sense of the newspaper readers.
7. CONCLUSIONS
It must first be noted that non-human animals never have access to a social class comparable to human classes. They are considered inferior in all cases, being objects or risks. And when some kind of identity is restored, it is done in a negative way, associated to negative features. They represent the difference, something that puts us in danger because of its very existence. They don't think, they don't act but to harm us and, therefore, rights mustn't be granted.
It seems essential to remember that problems related to nonhuman and human animals do not arise from the coexistence but from the change man makes in the environment and the place given to other species. To presume that problem situations arise from the coexistence involves an erasing of man's responsibility in modifying the environment without considering the consequences. Looking at things this way we can say man is creating a problem that today continues to be solved by sacrifice, euthanasia and (in the best of the cases) treatment programs. They have been colonized. Moreover, it should be noted that, dogs and cats, like many other animals in urban environments, are dominated by the human race. They cannot exist outside of human rules. They cannot walk alone down the street without being considered overpopulation or risk. They need a guardian or legal representative to not be considered marginal, just as women and black persons did until not long ago (Forte, 2015, P. 13).
Информация о конфликте интересов: авторы не имеют конфликта интересов для декларации.
Information of conflict of interests: authors have no conflicts of interests to declare.
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Diego Forte. To the Faithful Declassed: Health Risk as Speciesist Camouflage// Research Result. Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. - T.3, №2,2017
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Diego Forte, researcher in Critical Discourse Analysis for the University of Buenos Aires, Licenciate in Literature and Linguistics by University of Buenos Aires and PhD Candidate in the same university. Regional and Subject representative in Steering Group International Ecolinguistics Association, an academic counselor in the Ministry of Agriculture of Argentina
