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DOI: 10.18454/RULB.8.01 Колесникова Е.Е. Аспирант, Балтийский Федеральный университет им. И. Канта РОЛЬ КОГНИТИВНОГО КОНТЕКСТА В ФОРМИРОВАНИИ КОНТЕКСТНО-ЗАВИСИМЫХ ЗНАЧЕНИЙ МНОГОЗНАЧНЫХ АБСТРАКТНЫХ СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНЫХ
Аннотация
В статье рассмотрена роль контекста в образовании новых значений абстрактных существительных с высокой степенью контекстной зависимости. Контекст может выполнять ряд важных функций, что относится и к когнитивному контексту, который представляет собой блоки знаний, благодаря которым говорящий может ориентироваться в мире лексический значений. Данное исследование основано на данных Британского национального корпуса; в работе предпринимается анализ значений абстрактных существительных. В статье постулируется, что исторический и экономический контексты оказывают большое влияние на формирование значения многозначного слова.
Ключевые слова: контекст, лексическое значение, контекстная зависимость.
Kolesnikova E.E.
Postgraduate student, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE CONTEXT IN THE FORMATION OF CONTEXTUALLY DEPENDENT MEANINGS OF POLYSEMANTIC ABSTRACT NOUNS
Abstract
The paper analyses the role of context in the formation of new meanings of abstract nouns having a higher degree of contextual dependence. Context may have a number of important functions. This is also true with regard to cognitive context, which consists of certain chunks of information facilitating the speaker's orientation in the scope of lexical meanings. The present paper is based on the data from the British National Corpus; it undertakes to analyze the meanings of abstract nouns. The article postulates that historical and economic contexts are crucial for the meaning formation of a polysemantic word.
Keywords: context, lexical meaning, contextual dependence.
Почта авторов / Author Email: elena1989kolesnikova@gmail.com
Lexical meaning has been a core notion for linguists throughout all periods of language studies. Still, approaches to its definition vary broadly. Gradually the relationship between a sign and its user came to the foreground. Studies dedicated to pragmatics attempted to describe a dynamic connection between the speaker and the language sign. Cognitive linguistics has also made a significant contribution to the development of the theory of meaning. The idea that a single lexical meaning is part and parcel of a larger mental and linguistic formation underlies cognitive research. That is why such notions as concept, frame and category are widely discussed. Besides, cognitive scientists describe and interpret ways or models by which a new meaning appears in human mind; they investigate mechanisms responsible for meaning formation, as well as various factors that condition changes in meanings. Cognitive studies regard contextas a possible means of a meaning identification. Despite the fact that linguists agree on the importance of context analysis, there are minor differences in understanding its role. Contextually dependent words are most appropriate for such studies as they chiefly possess an abstract, generic meaning and it seems interesting to observe the development of their meanings in a variety of contexts.
The present paper is based on several seminal studies, e.g. B. Serebrennikov, N. Boldyrev, V. Zabotkina, T. A. van Dijk et al. The analysis of meaningsis done using the datafromtheBritishNational Corpus (BNC) which now is automatically updated and reflects processes taking place in the modern English language.
Contextual analysis implies clearly delineated paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of the word. The former exist between the words that are located in immediate proximity in a sentence [6, 238], and they comprise the basis of a context. As a rule, one distinguishes between a broad and a narrow context. The broad context is directly related to the cognitive one, since they both include factors outside the linguistic scope (social and historical settings) [4, P. 96]. E.
Boyarskaya writes about universal, culture specific as well as individual features as integral parts of cognitive context, for it is the speaker who connects the outside world and a language expression [3]. The speaker has to relate grammar, vocabulary and syntax of the native language to the ongoing changes in the world and this adaptation first and foremost concerns lexical changes. As stated by N. Boldyrev, lexical meanings are connected to the knowledge blocks that make up cognitive contexts. The mission of contexts is to facilitate the perception of new information (or the old one, but in a new distribution). [2, P. 36-45]. T. A. van Dijk regarded contexts as parts or interpretations of the social environment [7, P. 163].
So, what is exactly the relationship between a word meaning and its context? Contexts can pre-determine a meaning [4, P. 46], or reveal it [1, P. 7]. As a matter of fact, the latter uses the term "actualizing context" which is supposed to act as a prerequisite for the meaning actualization. B. Serebrennikov expresses a contrary idea. Context is unable to create a meaning, it only points at a new situation in communication. The meaning is determined later, in a human mind based on the available cognitive mechanisms [5, P. 206].
The modern English language abounds in new words and meanings. And some of them pose a certain difficulty in their translation into other languages. The lexical meaning is so deeply entangled with the context that it is practically impossible to render an adequate translation without it. The word "performance" is a good example thereof (examples in bold are taken from the BNC).
Word meanings are largely determined by the application area: at school pupils' performance basically means good or bad marks, in trading or economics export performance is export itself. In the latter case, the meaning is to a certain degree redundant and includes the assessment of all features of export activities, especially profit. In chemistry, high performance liquid is a liquid that reacts quickly to other substances while in lawcontractual performance is a degree
to which contract obligations are observed. Mathematics and computing use the word to denote calculation of certain numbers (such as floating point performance, integer performance).The invariant meaning can be therefore formulated as "functioning, activity" in a very broad sense. The element of evaluation is present in the generic meaning: any kind of activity should bring about certain results, and be a success or a failure.
Another example of a polysemantic contextually dependent word is "treatment". Its meanings also depend on the sphere of application. Environmental protection and studies view water\sewage treatment as purification, removal of contaminants. It is similar to performance: numerical treatment is tantamount to calculation or expression in different values. In agriculture treatment of confined areas refers to tilling land, in law and financing meanings are somewhat similar -income tax treatment,treatment of offenders denotes a set of rules which should be applied to certain things or persons.
As in the previous example, "treatment" has its invariant meaning "activity, actions imposed on some person or object." But this word lacks an evaluative component. The question is not how well something is done, but rather whether it is done or not. It is of interest to note the difference between the English concept of "water treatment" and Russian "очисткаводы," literally "water cleaning." Treatment does not imply that the object will become clean or pure. Rather, the object changes its essence. The same is true for the given examples from other fields of knowledge.
The word "crisis" presents a good example. Though normally it is translated as "кризис," the meanings vary to a great extent. For instance, if "crisis" is combined with resources (fuel crisis, coal crisis, oil crisis), it does not necessarily mean the lack of them. In most cases, it means
that prices have plunged and the economy is threatened. Therefore, it is actually an economic crisis that is meant.
Another possible model is country\weapon+crisis which can mean hostilities or an armed confrontation (Gulf crisis, missile crisis). If some notion, which is conventionally regarded as a negative one, is combined with "crisis", it means its uncontrollable development (rape crisis, hostage crisis, injury crisis, refugee crisis, debt crisis). Therefore, "crisis" serves as an intensifier without changing the meaning substantially. Here the abundance of some qualityis observed but it can develop vice versa. Examples like confidence crisis, cash crisis, sterling crisis point to lack of something which is usually perceived as vital. The last group - identity crisis, constitutional crisis, legitimacy crisis, capitalism's crisis - refers neither to the abundance nor lack of something, but to the disruption of normal functioning. As a matter of fact, it can serve as an invariant meaning. Consequently, the meaning of the word crisis depends heavily on the surrounding context. In order to understand the meaning of various collocations, the speaker has to be acquainted with the social and historical background and be able to distinguish between the set of values and beliefs in the existing society. Social context as such is a complex phenomenon.
In conclusion, it can be stated that the words analyzed above are contextually dependent having meanings dependent on historical, social and other factors. Moreover, several productive models of meaning formation can be identified. Abstract nouns, similar to the ones analyzed in the article, possess invariant meanings related to the functioning of animate or inanimate agents. From a philosophical standpoint, functioning is tantamount to existence. Contextually dependent words reflect fundamental, universal notions that is why they tend to develop numerous meanings.
Список литературы / References
1. Агамджанова В. И. Функции актуализирующего контекста / В. И. Агамджанова // Контекстуально обусловленная вариативность единиц языка. Сборник научных трудов. - Рига, 1989. - С. 4-131.
2. Болдырев Н. Н. Фреймовая семантика как метод когнитивного анализа языковых единиц / Н. Н. Болдырев // Проблемы современной филологии. Межвузовский сборник научных трудов. Вып. 1. - Мичуринск, 2000. - С. 36-45.
3. Боярская Е. Л. Полисемия и когнитивный контекст / Е. Л. Боярская // Когнитивные исследования языка. -Тамбов : Общероссийская общественная организация "Российская ассоциация лингвистов-когнитологов". - 2013. - № 16 - С. 265-271.
4. Медникова Э. М. Значение слова и методы его описания: на материале современного английского языка. Учебное пособие / Э. М. Медникова. - М., 2010. - 208 с.
5. Серебренников Б. А. Роль человеческого фактора в языке: Язык и мышление / Б. А. Серебренников. - М., 2010. - 248 с.
6. Crystal D. Linguistics / D. Crystal. - London, 1990. - 276 p.
7. Van Dijk T. A. Discourse, context and cognition / T. A. van Dijk // Discourse Studies. - 2006. - Vol. 8. - P. 159-177
Список литературы на английском / References in English
1. Agamdzhanova V. I. Funkcii aktualizirujushhego konteksta [Functions of the staticizing context] / V. I. Agamdzhanova // Kontekstual'no obuslovlennaja variativnost' edinic jazyka. Sbornik nauchnyh trudov [Contextually caused variability of language units. Collection of scientific papers]. - Riga,1989. - P. 4-131. [In Russian]
2. Boldyrev N. N. Frejmovaja semantika kak metod kognitivnogo analiza jazykovyh edinic [Frame semantics as method of the cognitive analysis of language units] / N. N. Boldyrev // Problemy sovremennoj filologii. Mezhvuzovskij sbornik nauchnyh trudov. Vyp. 1 [Problems of modern philology. Interuniversity collection of scientific papers. Issue 1]. - Michurinsk, 2000. - P. 36-45. [In Russian]
3. Bojarskaja E. L. Polisemija i kognitivnyj kontekst [Polysemy and cognitive context] / E. L. Bojarskaja // Kognitivnye issledovanija jazyka [Cognitive researches of language]. - Tambov : All-Russian public organization "Russian Association of Linguists-cognitivists". - 2013. - № 16 - P. 265-271. [In Russian]
4. Mednikova Je. M. Znachenie slova i metody ego opisanija: na materiale sovremennogo anglijskogo jazyka. Uchebnoe posobie [Word meaning and methods of its description: on material of modern English. Manual] / Je. M. Mednikova. -Moscow, 2010. - 208 p. [In Russian]
5. Serebrennikov B. A. Rol' chelovecheskogo faktora v jazyke : Jazyk i myshlenie [Role of human factor in language: Language and thinking] / B. A. Serebrennikov. - M., 2010. - 248 p. [In Russian]
6. Crystal D. Linguistics / D. Crystal. - London, 1990. - 276 p.
7. Van Dijk T. A. Discourse, context and cognition / T. A. van Dijk // Discourse Studies. - 2006. - Vol. 8. - P. 159-177.
General theory of signs in relation to linguistics. Semiology. Semiotics (UDC 8122)
DOI: 10.18454/RULB.8.14 Зубкова О.С.
Доктор филологических наук, Юго-западный государственный университет ЛИНГВОСЕМИОТИЧЕСКИЙ ПОДХОД К ИЗУЧЕНИЮ ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОЙ МЕТАФОРЫ (НА МАТЕРИАЛЕ МЕДИЦИНСКОГО ДИСКУРСА)
Аннотация
В статье обосновывается новый теоретический подход к изучению профессиональной метафоры, в рамках которого она рассматривается как лингвосемиотический феномен и часть семиотического континуума. Профессиональные метафоры, функционирующие в конкретном профессиональном континууме, рассматриваются автором как единицы живого знания, включающие в себя профессиональные и культурологические знания, коррелирующие с наивными в рамках индивидуального лексикона носителя языка. Особое внимание уделяется эмпирическому подтверждению теоретических постулатов.
Ключевые слова: метафора, лингвосемиотическая теория профессиональной метафоры, семиотический континуум.
Zubkova O.S.
PhD in Philology, SouthWest State University LINGUOSEMIOTICAL APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF PROFESSIONAL METAPHOR (BASED ON THE MATERIAL OF MEDICAL DISCOURSE)
Abstract
The article explains the new theoretical approach to the study of professional metaphor, in which it is regarded as linguosemiotical phenomenon and part of a semiotic continuum. Professional metaphors operating in specific professional continuum are considered by the author as units of live knowledge, including professional and cultural knowledge, correlating with naive within the individual lexicon of a native speaker. Particular attention is paid to empirical confirmation of theoretical postulates.
Keywords: metaphor, linguo-semiotical theory, semiotic continuum.
Почта авторов / Author Email: olgaz4@rambler.ru
Our linguosemiotical approach to the study of metaphor concerns the description of the existence of this phenomenon as a product of natural and artificial semiosis. On the one hand, it seems to us, that the investigated phenomenon is a part of the language space, objectifying peculiarities of identification and functioning of any linguistic unit in the speech interaction. On the other hand, it is a part of a semiotic continuum, performing interaction of mental space and speech activity of the individual in the process of communication. In our work under natural semiosis is understood as a natural process of signification, i.e. sign representation of information and the use of signs of natural origin in a certain semiotic space. As a part of the natural semiosis metaphor is a universal semiotic-cognitive connector, linking the area of perception with the surrounding reality display. We emphasize that the implementation of the semiotic potential of a metaphor is due to the active use of the analytical capabilities of metaphorization, manifesting cognitive operations products on the linguistic level [1], [2].
Under artificial semiosis we understand the process of cultural signification, i.e. sign representation of information and the use of signs in the semiotic space of the cultural and social life. In this formulation of the problem metaphor as a linguistic phenomenon acquires the status of semiotic space where cultural semes lexicalize. We emphasize that in the artificial semiosis by means of the cultural code, manifested primarily with the help of the natural language, a secondary valuation of the phenomenon under study is performed.
Considering the professional metaphor as a mental being, we assume that first of all it is a cognitive guide in
professional semiotic continuum, which universality of perception is based on its thingness and its heuristic potential. The outer shape (structural conformity) of professional metaphor is the same for various linguocultures, at the same time, it is fairly stereotyped for every separate culture. At the same time, being a verbal representation of pragmatically recycled individual and collective knowledge in professional semiotic continuum, and through the processes of metaphorization, the analyzed phenomenon becomes a conventional substitute for professional concepts of linguistic meaning which is hiding social practice and transformed and crystallized activity.
Metaphors semiotize professional situations, combining prognostic, suggestive and actional aspects ensuring its exterior identification within the continuum. At the same time the phenomenon under study objectifies the existing knowledge of the world by comparing the "ready-made" meanings for deciphering the cultural code and the associative representation caused by them, as well as forming the starting point of all communication grammar.
The use of a professional metaphor, which is the starting point of communicative interaction, pursues, in our opinion, the following objectives:
• employee orientation (the individual is easier to understand and interpret the text in writing form);
• "prompt" for properties of the missing parts of the professional phenomenon description by means of interpolation and extrapolation;
• possibility to avoid specifying the accompanying elements in academic sources based on the cultural or professional knowledge;
