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Section 2. Pedagogy
DOI:10.29013/ESR-23-7.8-11-17
THE ISSUE OF DIFFERENTIATION OF MORPHEMES AND WORDS IN THE KOREAN LANGUAGE
Kim Olga Anatolievna1
1 Research Center for Korean Studies at UzSUWL, Tashkent, Republic of Uzbekistan, PhD in Philology, expert
Cite: Kim O. A. (2023). The issue of Differentiation of Morphemes and Words in the Korean Language. European Science Review 2023, No 7-8. https://doi.org/10.29013/ESR-23-7.8-11-17
Abstract
Morpheme and word in the Korean language system have different volume and set of features in speech implementation. In speech, a word can change and even lose some of the features that it potentially possesses. In terms of content, the word gets a variety of shades of usage, up to individual, which does not necessarily violate its semantic specificity. In this article, the question of the differentiation of morphemes and words is considered from the point of view of the features of Korean word formation and morphemic structure of simple and complex words.
Keywords: morphemic structure, syncretic phenomena, semantic specificity, word variants, single word, morpheme, phrase, a complex word, word formation, grammatical functions
Introduction
In linguistics, when defining a word, three circumstances of general methodological significance are taken into account: 1) recognition of the absence of clear dividing lines between the facts of language, the presence of intermediate and syncretic phenomena: a word can turn into a morpheme, a phrase into a complex word. The class of words itself is heterogeneous: there are independent (significant) and service words (combining the features of a single word and morphemes). In this regard, it is relevant to study the ways of word formation and the
description of morphemes involved in the formation of new words.
Word in the Korean language system has a different volume and a set of features during speech implementation. In speech, a word can change and even lose some of the features that it potentially possesses (for example, the reduction of case particles in oral speech): in terms of content, it receives a variety of shades of use, up to individual ones, which does not necessarily violate its semantic specificity and independence (for example, ^«}#^[geotbasokbu] ^ 4 ^ ^^£[geoteun basak-
basakhago sokeun budeureoun] - abbreviation of the phrase outside is crunchy inside is soft); in expressing the word may undergo positional changes (alternating phonem 7 ^^[gareuchin] teaching - 7—^^[gareu-chyeoyo] teaches, ^4[geotda] walk - ^ [geoleoseo] walking; loss phonem ^ 4[natda] born - 4>^^l^[naasseoyo] was born, etc.), which does not deprive him of independence. The problem of the separability of a single word is connected with taking into account its various uses. In many cases, the definition of the boundaries of a word is possible only taking into account the paradigmatic of the language. The complexity of identifying words and establishing their system is partly due to the presence of word variants: orthographic, phonetic, orthoep-ic, stylistic, grammatical, word-formation, lexico-semantic.
The signs of the word noted above are not characteristic of all words in all languages. According to the method of nomination, which is also associated with the general semantic and grammatical properties of the word, four types of words are distinguished in Korean: independent (significant, full-meaning) words that have an independent nominative function, denoting reality independently, directly, separately. They can form a separate statement constitute the most extensive and the main type of words - nouns (4^[saram] man, [gyoyuk] education, ^ [jip] house, etc.), adjective (#4[jotda] good ^^^[eoryeopda] complex, Ti4[meolda] faraway, etc.), verbs (^4[oda] to come, ^4[ilkda] read [jeonhada] pass, etc.), adverbs [ppalri] fast [yeolsimhi] hard 7\v\&] [gakkai]
close, etc.), numerals (~&}4[hana] one, [i] two ^[man] ten thousand, etc.). Function words, not having an independent nominative function, as well as grammatical and phonetic autonomy (particles: -°1 /7[i/ga], -^/^[eun/neun], -^S[hago]; attributive, words passed from other parts of speech: [sae] new, [ireon] like this, ^ [yet] long, etc.) can point to phenomena (relationship) extralinguistic world using with independent words. They cannot form a separate utterance and either form one sentence member with an independent word, or link the members of a sentence or sentence, or structurally
replace a sentence member, or formalize the sentence as a whole. The pronominal words [i/geu/jeo] this/that/over there, ^ ^7[nugunga] someone, [eodide-
onji] wherever) denote objects indirectly, or in relation to persons of speech. They also rely on a speech situation or on neighboring statements, thereby performing a connecting function in the text (^&M4[geureonikka] therefore, S[tto] also, ^&|S^[geureomeu-ro] consequently). Interjections denote the phenomena of reality in an undifferentiated way, therefore they do not have grammatical formality and cannot enter into syntactic relations with other words [yae] hey, 4[a] aaa, ^[swit] shh).
Research method. In the Korean language, morphologically, there are words that are changeable (for example, verbs) and unchangeable (many adverbs), simple (^4 [geotda] to walk), derivatives (^^[geoleum] step), complex (^^^[cheotgeoleum] first step). According to semantic and grammatical features, words are grouped into parts of speech (^4[pumsa]). From the point of view of structural integrity, there are words (word forms) integral [joripdoeji aneun daneo]) and segmented or analytical 4^1 [joripdoeneun
daneo]). The latter consist of a significant part and elements that carry word-forming or grammatical functions. The grammatical element in analytical word forms performs not a syntactic function (the formation of a sentence member), but a morphological one (the formation of a morphological form of a word), and therefore in some descriptions it is called, in order to distinguish it from a service word, a separable morpheme or an «auxiliary word». In a sentence, a word (word form) enters into subtle semantic relations with other words and elements of the sentence composition (intonation, word order, syntactic functions). This interaction, together with the correlation with the situation, determines the specific realization of the meaning of a word, its semantic significance (the possibility of omission, etc.). In the Korean language, words are also differentiated by historical perspective, by sphere of use, by word-formation relationships, by semantic correlation (Table 1).
European Science Review 2023, Section 2. Pedagogy
No 7-8.
Table 1. Differentiation of words in the Korean language
Types
Subtype
Archaisms ):
44 [goeda] ^ 4444 [sarang-
hada] to love; 4^44[iseuthada] ^ «1^44 [biseuthada] similar.
Professionalism (3$4): 4#44 [susul-hada] operate; 44^ [maket-ing] marketing.
Terms (44):
W [non-mun] dissertation; 44 [supil] essay.
Neologisms (44):
^444 [geumsappanyeo] from "^4 44^1 4 44 44 [geumbang sarange ppajineun yeoja]" fast falling in love woman; [haekkkuljaem] - abbreviated. from "4 4 is4 44 44 [maeu mani jaemiiteum]" very interesting. Argotisms (£4):
84^ [palbiteu] 8 bits (about a student who studies poorly); 444 [saengkkada] ignore (pretend not to have seen).
Dialectisms (44): 444 [oksukku] corn
(lit. 444 [oksu-su]); 444 [namari] dragonfly (lit. 444 [jamjari]).
Cognate words: 44 [adeul] son, 4444 [adeulnaemi] son, 444 [adeulne] the family of his son, 4444 [oedongadeul] only son, 4444 [ssangdongadeul] twin sons, 4444 [maljatadeul] the third son, ^44 [keunadeul] the eldest son, 444 4 / 4444 [maknaeadeul/jakeunadeul] the younger son, 444 [chinadeul] own ^44 [cheongadeul] a wise son, 4444 [suyangadeul] adopted son.
son,
Antonyms_(4
44):
4 [deo] more 4
[deol] less; ^4[deopda] hot w4[chupda] cold.
Synonyms
(444):
4/4/^4
[byeol / seong / seuta] star;
44/44/s
4[ai/agi/kko-ma] child.
Multi-valued (444):
44[bapeul meokda] eat, 444 44 [mae-umeul meokda] decide to do, ^4 44 [gongeul meokda] score a goal; 4 [kkum] dream / vision _/ ambition._
Homonyms (4^4): 4 [bae] - ship, pear,
belly; 4 [nun] - snow, eyes.
Word formation (44 ^ [daneo hyeongseongron]) as a linguistic science studies the ways and types of word formation. There are synchronous and dia-chronic word formation. Synchronous analysis deals with modern relations between related words, without taking into account the etymological situation. In synchronous word formation, in order to establish the derivative and the generating basis, it is necessary to answer the question: which of the two single-root bases is simpler in form and meaning (producing), and which is more complex (derivative). Diachronic (historical) word formation studies the history of the appearance of a word, the development of its structure and formal semantic links between related words (L.S. Filippova, 2009). Derived basis is a basis formally formed and motivated in the sense of another basis. The generating base is the base
closest in form to the derivative. Through it, the derivative basis is motivated and interpreted.
Results analysis
So, word formation, being an important link in the language system connecting vocabulary with grammar, on the one hand, serves to replenish the lexical composition of the language with new words created on the basis of already existing words and the formation of the lexical meaning of a motivated word, often also grouping words into lexical categories. And since there are an overwhelming majority of single-root (motivated) words in the language, word formation is also an important key to the vocabulary of the language in the process of its assimilation, to understanding the meaning of new words, since the word-formation structure of a word always
indicates its lexical meaning to one degree or another. On the other hand, word-formative means serve to assign the same-root words to certain grammatical classes, categories. Both in word formation and in the morphology of the Korean language, we are dealing with morphemes, since both word-formation and grammatical (morphological) meanings of words are expressed most often by affixes. Thus, the morphemic structure of the Korean language - its morphemics - covers morphology and word formation.
Words, depending on their structure, are divided into simple words [danileo])
and compound words (44^1 [bokhapeo]). Compound words according to the method of word formation are divided into those formed by root addition and those formed by derivation, in which various affixes are attached to the root. The formation of a word by derivation means the union of a root and an affix, resulting in the formation of a new word. In Korean, affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes, the question of including such language units as '-^-[s/t], -y -[b/p], [h/t] (in the words 4^S[namutip] tree foliage, ^4[jopssal] millet, 44[amdak] chicken) is still open among Korean scholars. One of the main models of word formation in the Korean language is affixation. In affixation, suffixal (suffixation), prefixal (prefix), suffixal-prefixal methods are distinguished. With the help of suffixation in Korean word formation, all parts of speech can be formed. Derivational suffixes in Korean, in turn, are divided into native Korean and Sino-Korean suffixes and prefixes ('#-' / m / [chong] all/all / M / [mu] no/no (meaning lack of), -' / 4 / [bi] not (within the meaning of negation).
Affixes are classified into suffixes and prefixes based on their location in the word. Prefix is an affix located before the root, for example, '4-' [deot] (4 [deo] still + -a) in the word [deotbeoseon] the second socks
worn over the first. Suffix is an affix located after the root, for example, '- 7fl' [gae] in the word 47}| [deopgae] cover.
The classification of affixes into limited and dominant ones is carried out on the basis of the function they perform. The limiting affix complements or restricts the meaning of the word ('4-' [maen] in the word [maenson] bare hands). The dominant affix,
joining the root, forms another part of speech ('-7]' [gi] in the word 37] [keugi] size).
In the Korean language, derived nouns, as well as derived verbs, are formed in a prefixed way, most often. Depending on which part of speech the prefixes are attached to, they are divided into: 1) joining only to independent parts of speech, for example, the prefix '7fl-' [gae] wild in the word 7}|44 [gae-nari] wild lily; 2) joining only to predicative parts of speech, for example, the prefix '4-' [doe] on the contrary, again in the word 44 4[doegapda] to reward; 3) joining both immutable and predicative parts of speech, for example, the prefix '4-' [gat] just in the word 4—#[gatseumul] just (turned) 20 years old, 44^4[gatgyeolhonhan] newlywed. The most active affixes are:
1) restrictive affixes: the plural suffix '-#' [deul] in the word it 4°d^[aideul] children; the use of hieroglyphic origin '-4' [ga] with the value of the worker in the word [soseolga] novelist; suffix '-4' [a] in the word 444 [kkamatda] black; suffix ' [i] in the word 44°] [deougi] moreover, more;
2) dominant affixes: suffix passive voice '-1' [chi] in the word 414[milchida] to push; the affix '-]' [gi] (conversion formant of the noun form in word 8i7] [ilkgi] reading; the affix [bo] to people in the word 4 ^[meokbo] glutton; suffix '-4/-^!' [ap/eop] in the words 4^!4[mideopda] loyal, 444 [akkapda] regret; suffix '-y ' [p] in the words ^^4[geuripda] miss, ^44[nolrapda] wonder; the suffix '-4' [dap] in ^44[kkot-dapda] beautiful like a flower (floral); '-#' [rop] in 47#4[hyanggiropda] fragrant, 444[haeropda] harmful; the suffix [seureop] in 44—^4 [sarangseureopda] lovely, ^^—^4[geokjeongseureopda] worried; the affix '-4' [ji] in 4444[eolrukjida] to become mottled, 4444[geonbangjida] smug; suffix '-#' [rop] in 444[saeropda] new; the suffix '-4' [u] in 4^[maju] face to face; the suffix '-]' [i] in is°] [mani] many; the suffix '-1' [hi] in 441 [gamanhi] quiet, 4l[geuphi] urgent; [ro] in 44^ [jinsilro] the truth, 4—^[chameuro] indeed. Along with this, the Korean language uses word formation in the way of the null suffix, which is used in the formation of a derived verb, for example: 4[bae] belly ^ 44[bae-da] to get pregnant; 4#[gamul] drought ^
7}#4[gamulda] to be arid. When forming these words between the main elements, it is possible to add or drop morphemes.
Complex words are formed in a syntactic and non-syntactic way. A syntactic connected word is a word formed according to the usual word order in a Korean sentence, for example, [saechaek] new book (from 4 [sae] new (definition) + 4 [chaek] book (defined word)). Non-syntactic is a compound that deviates from the usual word order in a sentence (the predicate takes place at the end of the sentence), for example, the word 44 [jeop-kal] folding knife is formed by attaching to the root 4 [jeop] folding (from the verb 44 [jeopda] to bend) the root 4 [kal] knife.
The word structure is diverse according to the types of semantic connection between the components that make up a complex word. One of the components often clarifies, concretizes the meaning of the second, in some words one part is a logical complement to the second (Lee B. S., Shim L. V., Lvova I. S., Adylova S. R., 2011). The first component of a compound word often weakens the specific meaning of objectivity and expresses a sign of a concept, while individual parts of a compound word or the word as a whole can be reinterpreted.
Syntactically connected word that takes the form of a noun is formed by joining:
a) noun to noun, for example: 444 [gi-wajip] a house with a tiled roof, 44[nun-mul] tears, 444[apchima] apron, 44[ji-pan] family;
b) an attributive word to a noun, for example: 44[saehae] new year, 444[che-otsarang] first love, 44 [igeot] is a thing;
c) the type of attributive word to the noun, for example: 444 [neulkeuni] old man, 4 4 [bolil] deeds, 44[olhae] the current year.
Non-syntactically connected word that takes the form of a noun is formed when joining:
a) the root of predicative parts of speech to nouns, for example: 44[deulgeot] stretcher, 44[neutjam] late sleep, 444 [neutdeowi] late heat;
b) imitative adverbs to nouns, for example: 4444[sandeulbaram] cool wind, 44 44[cheokcheokbaksa] know-it-all;
c) nouns to nouns using the connective consonant A[s/t]: 44[chotbul] candle fire;
d) adverbs to adverbs: 44[jalmot] error.
Syntactically connected word that takes the form of a verb is formed when attaching:
a) the subject to the predicate: 444 [himdeulda] difficult;
b) a direct complement to the predicate: °fl—4[aesseuda] try;
c) circumstances to the predicate: 444 [apseoda] to be at the head;
d) the main verb to the connective suffix followed by an auxiliary verb: 4[dol] + 4[a] + 44[gada] go to 4444[dolagada] to return.
Non-syntactically connected word that takes the form of a verb is formed when the verb base is attached to the verb root: ^44 4[gulmjurida] to starve; 444[gamssada] to patronize. Syntactically connected word that takes the form of a verb and an adjective is formed by joining: a) a subject with a predicate, for example: ^444 [gongbuhada] to learn, 444 [natseolda] an unfamiliar person (from 44 [nati] a person/face (subject) + 44[seolda] unfamiliar (predicate)); b) circumstances with predicate c 444[motnada] ugly (from 4[mot] not able (circumstance) + 44[nada] to appear (predicate)). Relatively often adjectives are formed by joining: a) the basis of one adjective to the basis of another, for example: ^44[gutseda] strongly (from ^4[gutda] solid + 44[seda] strong); b) to the root of adjective affix and root (words) of another adjective, for example, — 4—4 [sseudisseudа] very bitter (root — [sseu] + affix -4 [di] + word —4[sseudа]); 4444 [gopdigopda] very beautiful (root 4[gop] + affix 4 [di] + word 44[gopda]). Connected word that takes the form of an adverb is formed by joining: a) noun to noun: 44 [bamnat] day and night; b) attributive word to noun: ^4[geunyang] simple; c) adverbs to adverb: ^4[gotjal] enough; d) repeated words: 4444[gubulgubul] tortuous. The structure of a compound word of hieroglyphic origin formed syntactically: a) predicate + complement: 44 [dokseo] reading a book; b) predicate + circumstance: 44[gwihyang] homecoming; c) attributive word + noun: 4 4[miin] beauty; d) adverb + predicate: 44 [ppilseung] mandatory win; e) equal structure: 2-4 [gojeo] high and low. Words formed by abbreviations require special attention: 4 444[Daehanminguk] ^ 44[Hanguk] Re-
public of Korea; ^4^4 [Imsijeongbu] ^ ^ ^ [Imjeong] Provisional Government; ^ [Hangukeunhaeng] ^ 44[Haneun] Korean Bank. In Korean linguistics, along with the above-described classifications of vocabulary, there is a classification according to the method of word formation in terms of morphemic composition, in which all words are divided into simple and compound. And the components, in turn, are divided into complex and derivatives (Lee Ikseob, 2000). Simple words are words consisting of a single morpheme (Nam Gisim, 2014), for example: S[ko] nose, 4 [nun] eyes. Despite the fact that the words 4 4[ttwida] jump, 4—14[gareu-chida] teach consist of two morphemes, they are not composite. Compound word is a word consisting of two or more morphemes (Nam Gisim, 2014). Compound words that do not include affixes are formed by adding words. Following this classification, two main ways of word formation can be distinguished: the method of formation of compound words (4 [bokhapbeop]) and the method of formation of derived words (44^! [pasaengbeop]) (Lee Ikseob, 2000). Depending on what part of speech is formed by the word, compound and derived words are divided into: compound noun 44^4 [bokhapmyeongsa], a compound verb 4444[bokhapdongsa], composite adjective 44^44 [bokhaphy-eongyongsa], a compound adverb 4444 [bokhapbusa] and the derived noun 44^4 [pasaengmyeongsa], the derived verb 444 4[pasaengdongsa] derived adjectival 44^ 44[pasaenghyeongyongsa], derived adverb 4444 [pasaengbusa], respectively (Nam Gisim, 1998). Derived verbs formed in a suffixal way are mainly verbs of the active and passive voices. Among complex words, there are words formed by repeating roots, such as ^4^4[gorugoru] equally, evenly, 4444 [gubulgubul] tortuously, having changes in one part, such as 44^4[singgeulbeongge-ul] smiling, and also containing a connecting element, such as 4444[malkdimalkda] very light. This method of word formation is called reduplication, and words formed in this way are reduplication complex words (Nam Gisim, Ko Yonggeun, 1985). Most of the reduplication compound words in the Korean language are onomatopoeic and figurative words. Onomatopoeic words are words cre-
ated to imitate the sounds made, and figurative words are formed in order to imitate the appearance (Lee Ikseob, 1999), for example 4444[kkaokkkaok] croaking, 444 [ungseongungseong] noisy, 44^4[sing-geulbeonggeul] with a grin.
Conclusion (discussion)
Thus, in the Korean language, from the point of view of morphemics, words are divided into simple, consisting of one morpheme and compound, consisting of two or more morphemes. Compound words consist of compound and derived words. In the formation of compound words, the roots are added, and in the formation of derived words, an affix (prefix or suffix) is attached to the generating base. Depending on whether the structure of the word corresponds to the general rules of syntactic construction of words in a phrase and in a sentence, a syntactic compound word and a non-syntactic compound word are distinguished. Syntactic compound word is a compound word formed according to a syntactic composition. For example: 1) according to the syntactic structure "subject + direct complement + predicative subject + predicate" or "object + predicate", compound words are formed with the structures "noun + verb", "noun + adjective", "noun + particle + noun", "noun + noun in attributive form", "definition + noun", "adverb + verb or adjective", "verb or adjective + formant + verb/adjective or nominal part of speech", "verb/adjective + formant + verb/adjective", "verb/adjective + formant + nominal part of speech". Non-syntactically compound word is a compound word formed in a way different from the general syntactic composition. For example: 1) expressions and phrases, which lowered formant adjective (444 [neutdeowi] late in the heat, we compare ^ 4 [keunjip] big house, 44[binjip] empty house) 2) when you fall connective formants between the bases of a verb or adjective (4 44[yeodatda] to open and close, [geompureuda] dark blue, is comparable 4 ^4—4[deulgonareuda] to keep and bear, 4444[dolagada] to return); 3) when an adverb used before a noun parts of speech (444 [buseulbi] drizzling rain, #44 [cholrangsae] finches bird, compare 444 [motnada] ugly, 444[makdoeda] blocked);
when formed sinatraesque complex words ( [dokseo] reading, 44[geupsu] urgent, compare 44[ilmul] the sun, 24[goseo] ancient book). Rich, diverse and flexible system of ways of Korean word formation allows you to create a huge number of new words. Often in texts you can find words formed in lexical-semantic and morphological-syntactic ways.
But such cases are most likely more logical to consider especially. In a certain sense, we deal with the lexico-semantic way when we talk about words in an individually authorial or contextual meaning. But these new words, as a rule, cannot be reproduced without context. All this points to the need for further research of the features of Korean word formation.
References:
Lee Ikseob. (2000). Introduction to Korean linguistics. - Seoul. - P. 36-51. [444. 4444
4. - 44, 36-514].
Lee Ikseob. (1999). Lectures on Korean grammar. - Seoul. - P. 214. [4 44. 444444 4. - 44 - 214 4].
Lee B. S., Shim L. V., Lvova I. S., Adylova S. R. (2011). Comparative typology of Korean and Uzbek languages. - T.: State scientific publishing house "O'zbekiston milliy ensiklopediyasi". Nam Gisim, Ko Yonggeun. (1985). Standard Korean Grammar. - Seoul. - P. 247. [444, 2
S444444. - 44. - 247 4]. Nam Gisim. Introduction to linguistics. (1998). - Seoul: Thabchulpansa Publishing House. -
P. 174. [444. 444 44. - 44: 4444 - 174 4]. Nam Gisim. (2014). Theory of grammar of standard Korean. - Seoul: Ed. Pakijong. [444. S
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submitted 22.08.2023; accepted for publication 20.09.2023; published 8.10.2023 © Kim O. A.
Contact: science_7777@mail.ru
