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14Социология №6 2019
Влияние деятельности НПО на положение женщины в обществе в Индонезии на о. Бали в период всемирной глобализации
Ни Ваяан Радита Нови Пуспитасари
В данной работе мы попытаемся исследовать проблему положения женщины в обществе в Индонезии на о. Бали в период всемирной глобализации, основываясь на значении и роли в обществе неправительственных организаций для женщин (НПО). Для этой работы нам необходимо будет выявить и изучить негативные стороны культурной самобытности балийских женщин, которые могут оказывать влияние на их положение в обществе. Необходимо будет показать связь между культурными особенностями женщин о. Бали и неравенством полов в исследуемом регионе. Балийское общество придерживается патриархальной системы в семье, а это, в свою очередь, определяет основы социума и напрямую влияет на жизнь женщин. Гендерные ограничения, которые складываются в семье, преследуют женщину и за пределами дома, и не дают ей развиваться в других сферах жизни общества. Некоторые высокообразованные женщины, участвующие в выборах в качестве законных представителей в органы власти, боятся дискриминации и позиции быть ниже мужчин, а также потерять свою культурную самобытность. Для анализа культуры Бали, сформировавшейся под влиянием патриархата, будет использована теория рефлексивной солидарности. Эмпирически и аналитически мы исследуем научную литературу, используем концептуальный подход по отношению к НПО и положению женщин в балтийском обществе.
Ключевые слова: неравенство полов, НПО, культурная самобытность, аутентичность и солидарность
1. Introduction
The notion of gender equality has been echoed by the establishment of Indonesian Constitutional Law No. 10/ 2008, concerning the representative quotas of 30 percent of Women Legislative Candidates in the electoral period (DPR, 2008). Objectively, Balinese women who want to reach the national quotas need to face the obstacle of gender barriers. According to the Women Research Institute, the women's representation in parliamentary and regional head elections were low in 2014 (Paat, 2015). It is strengthened by the statement of NGO's Bali Sruthi, that only 7,3 percent of women could become representative of legislative candidates in 2014 (Putri, 2019). This phenomenon correlates with the background of Hinduism and the system of patrilineal as a cultural identity. According to Putra (2011), the culture of patriarchy is strongly applied in the public role where women are treated as lower-class citizens (Putra, 2011; Geertz, 1975; Jha, 2004).
Cultural unfairness has been marginalized in the scope of individual and groups of women (Arta, 2016). As a result, Balinese women are hardly permeating gender barriers to develop themselves in another social
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discourse. Some of the educated-women, who tries to become representative of women legislative candidates, convey the uncertainty of losing their cultural identity and the discrimination by being 'the second position after men' (Gultom, 2017). Thus, the non-government organizations (NGOs) have the role to help, guide and protect the right of women in order to provide supporting power against gender inequality.
This paper aims at exploring gender inequality in the scope of the patriarch system by scrutinizing the role of Women's NGOs and their position in the society. It will divide into three parts: Firstly, it will discuss the theoretical framework on reflective solidarity as the basis for analyzing Balinese women as predominantly-sided to the patriarchy system. Secondly, it will analyze the historical background of gender inequality in Balinese society. Thirdly, it will reflect on the concept of NGOs and how their role as an institutional platform to direct Balinese women in the society. In terms on the scope and limitation of the paper, this study will focus on three regencies in Bali: Denpasar (as lowland region), Karangasem (as mountain area), and Singaraja (as coastal area).
Through the framework of feminism, the theory of reflective solidarity by Jodi Dean become the model of analyzing contextualization of women in Balinese culture. Thus, this article tries to discuss the loss of cultural identity of Balinese women between tradition and modern values and the role of NGOs by maintaining their solidarity to help and protect Balinese women over gender inequalities.
2. Theoretical framework: conventional solidarity and reflective solidarity
Some scholars have done debates over gender discrimination have been done by some scholars. Discrimination over women happen mostly in a society where the system of patrilineal is applicable. One of the scholars who work on this topic comes from Jodi Dean's Solidarity of Strangers. She starts with the expression of gender solidarity is centered in affirmation, inclusion and recognition. According to her, the concept of solidarity 'involves a set of shared expectations that constitute a context of meaning central to a group's self-understanding' (Dean, 1996). As a result, she diversifies two kinds of solidarity - the conventional solidarity and reflective solidarity.
Conventional solidarity is constructed by the common interest and concerns that originates from shared traditions and values unifying a group or community. Conventional solidarity divides into the inward-oriented type and outward-oriented type (we-ness). The inward-oriented type belongs to the members who express their claims and concerns to each other, and the outward-oriented type focusing on the common struggle that expands the circle of addressees to demonstrate their claims in the scale of a larger society.
The birth of solidarity created from the disagreement, that conventional solidarity starts with nonconformity of potential disruption; but the connection of disagreements establishes reflective solidarity. Dean tries to build a concept of 'we' from the basis of conflicts and disagreements. Following her argument, she describes reflective solidarity as "a
mutual expectation of a responsible orientation to a relationship" (Dean, 1996). In this statement, the mutual expectation has a different meaning of "we" that base on the different notion of "I's"; where responsibility "stresses our accountability for exclusion" that has its own criteria and range. On the other hand, the perspective of reflective solidarity refers to the term 'we' is always dependent on 'they' with their different established values. According to Uttal, "their 'we' did not rely on the exclusion of some 'outside other.' The 'we' used by them is communicative and internally established, referring to the relationship among the various women" (Dean, 1996). Identity is a central issue in the feminist realm, whereby she acknowledges the understanding of the members for being an entity of a group. Language become a significant aspect in forming the term 'we' with raising a query in order to establish identical values (or a form of communication) among the members of the feminist groups. Beside the interconnection of utterance, "solidarity is always connected with action" (Dean, 1996). As a result, reflective solidarity defines as "the exclusion of exclusion" which means as connected lines that shared the same struggle against the party who disparage and intimidate them. Overall, the notion of conventional solidarity explains that "our appeal is based on our common interest, concern and struggles. Thus, reflective solidarity focuses on the diversity of every individual who shared the same struggle against the party who denigrate them. Therefore, to scrutinize the theoretical framework on conventional and reflective solidarity into Balinese women and its
NGOs need to be done by analyzing their position in the society.
3. The historical background: gender inequality in balinese society
The cultural background of Balinese society is based on Hinduism and patrilinealism. According to the issue of gender inequality, the historical background of local Balinese kingdoms was influencing the position of women in the society. The existence of local kingdoms was established since 10 AD, where the power structure of Balinese society was based on the local kingdoms. Balinese local kingdoms, are known as Puri, became the symbol of sanctity and the center of local government (Munandar, 2005). Clifford Geertz in his book of "Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali" states that:
"The State - arbitrary, cruel, rigidly hierarchical, but in essence superfluous - was seen to rise above the "patriarchal communism" of village society, feeding upon it, now and then damaging it, but never really penetrating it. The village, the desa, was a self-contained, cosmologically based organic unit, shut in upon itself and growing out of the soil of indigenous Balinese culture... The state created the village as the village created the state" (Geertz, 1980).
In the quotation of Geertz, the state was referring as the concept of puri -in which it applied the hierarchical system and caste system (in Hindu terminology) in the society. Then, feminist movement entered Bali around 1950s, where Indonesia got its independence in 1945. It was supported by the creation of woman's organization that dominated by the
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female aristocrats as educated women. This group of women came from the patron's wives, bureaucrats, and civil servants' wives (Putra, 2003). From the article of "Gender Issue in Politic and The Effort to increase Women's Representation in the Political Arena", Sukiada (2014) described the creation of Young Minister's for Women's Affairs was supported by the policy of Broad Guidelines of State Policy in 1988, which outlined that: 1) Women should have the equal rights, obligations and chances with men in the National Development; 2) To increase the role of women in the society starts from the family; 3) The dual role of women in the family and society needs to be harmonious; 4) Recognition and dignity on women's role need to be protected; and 5) The right of acquiring the level of education is needed for women to have the chance of finding a good job (Sukiada cited in Mahyuni, 2014). Through these policies, the government gave their attention to the role of Indonesian women in general. However, the application of these policies never yielded positively. In society, informal and formal institutions, had the perspective that women were in the second position after men. The topic of gender became a benchmark of national development where the formal institutions started to conduct workshops referring to the topic of the gender issue. They integrated gender issue into an overall government's programs and policies and applied an advocacy strategy to search for the root cause of gender problems in the society (Fakih, 1997). Therefore, the role of PKK was significant in solving the problems of women's discrimination, especially in the family issue.
4. The representation of ngos and its role in balinese women
Oppression over women are frequently arises in the Balinese society. The existence of a robust patriarchal system divides the concept of gender as men (purusa) and women (pradana). It follows the system of Purusa, in which patriarchy is the core of the system. Therefore, there are some values that needs to be followed by the Balinese family, such as: (1) the offspring is recorded from the father's lineage (purusa); (2) a woman from the Balinese family who get married to a Balinese man, will be released from her family with the abolishment from her rights and obligations; (3) male offspring are important in the Balinese family, whereby he become the successor to maintain and preserve the religious values in the family (Eiseman, 2009). According to Rahayu, the social status of Balinese women follows the traditional culture by dealing with domestic work, preparing the ritual offerings, and child care (Luh Riniti Rahayu, personal communication, July 11, 2015). Through these aspects, the lack of socialization into the society causes inability to have self-development and low self-esteem. As a result, women are having a narrow position in the politic of the household. Thus, NGOs in Bali have been developed in the period of reformation, especially in Karangasem, Singaraja and Denpasar.
4.1. The Representation of NGO: Study Case in Karangasem
According to the geographical context, Regency of Karangasem locates in the northern part of Bali with mountainous landscapes. Public access such as roads and public
transportation has been difficult to access, where the society lives mostly in remote areas. The strong cultural background is still applicable in the society, with the homogeneity of the people and the absence of external factors - such as modernism, globalization, and feminism - results close-minded society. Through these factors, the Women Crisis Center (WCC) as an NGO in Karangasem faces difficulties in approaching the society. They encountered some opposition from the people that this institution would bring conflicts into their lives. Therefore, as the leader of WCC, Ni Nyoman Suparni (2015) cooperated with the village chief by introducing her institution to the society. This NGO is established in 2007 with the aim to give advocacy, assistance, and solution for social problems in Karangasem. Another approach is by giving persuasive understanding to the people, analyze the problem, and provide the cause and effect when they decide by having decision-making. There are some cases of gender inequality in Karangasem villages, named as:
• One of the cases
came from sexual harassment in one of Karangasem villages. The family members of the victim were secretive and did not want to reveal the case to the institution, because the consequence of being open would be discrimination from the villagers and judgement to the woman who is in the wrong position. This case also became an ignominy to the woman's family. In this case, the role of WCC is to give protection and shelter for the victims and their family to publish this case into the society with the result that it will not happen again.
• Other case came
from the 'child marriages' from the underage children. According to Suparni, child marriages are common in Karangasem families, in which young girls who have their first menstruation could marry with the opposite sex (Nyoman Suparni, personal communication, July 22, 2015). It is supported by the uneducated family members who are applying old traditional perspective in their family. It is also happening in the case of domestic violence, whereby women are oppressed by Balinese customary law. The patrilineal system becomes the hindrance of applying gender equality in the society. In these cases, the need to understand the psychology of the locals are required in order to use the appropriate advocacy, especially in the case of domestic violence. WCC also recommends the revisioning of local law into National law to the provincial authority, that gender equality could be achieved.
Most of the cases of WCC are being collided with the customary law, especially in Bunutan, Dayan and Kubu. Only 200 children could gain their education in Junior High School, where most of them are uneducated or have a less educational background (Nyoman Suparni, personal communication, July 22, 2015). Another factor comes from the existence of puri (as the local power), in which it obstructs the development of the feminist movement in Karangasem society. Puri is strongly supporting the representation of Balinese customary law and tradition, where the rights of women to vote and make policy on their villages are vacant (Nyoman Suparni, personal communication, July 22, 2015).
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Through these years, WCC has gained the trust of the society. There is only one shelter in Bali that is funded by this NGO, where the government could not afford making shelters for the victims (Nyoman Suparni, personal communication, July 22, 2015). Three rooms are available, in which WCC provide high operational costs to accommodate the victims. Most of the victims were staying in their houses, in which the disturbance from their neighbors will give a negative impact to the individual by asking regularly on how and why the tragedy happened. Therefore, the aim of the shelter is by giving personal space to the victim for her recovery. The complete facilities and infrastructure of WCC gives privilege for them by receiving funds periodically from the local government. On the other side, WCC are still facing the resistance by the society because of the lack of understanding in the role and aim of the institution.
4.2. The Representation of NGO: Study Case in Singaraja
Singaraja has been known as the former capital city of Bali in the period of Dutch colonization (1849 - 1953) (Ricklefs, 2001). Modernization was introduced by the Dutch and the role of women had been significantly played in the historical event of Puputan Jagaraga, where one of the heroic women of Singaraja (Jero Jempiring) joined the battle against the Dutch (NusaBali, 2016). The role of women has a significant position in the society that was influenced by the historical background of Singaraja (Antonius Sanjaya Kyabeni, personal communication, June 19, 2015). Although the feminist movement had been developed in the history of
Singaraja, but discrimination over women is existing until the present time.
Gema Nusantara, as one of the NGO in Singaraja, is dealing with gender issue by assisting and solving the problem of inequality. As the leader of Gema Nusantara, Antonius Sanjaya Kyabeni (2015) states domestic violence regularly appeared in the grassroots. As victims, Balinese women have the attitude of ewuh pakewuh (a local culture that is instilled as a sense of shy, awkwardness, and respectful toward others) for not reporting the violence into the institution (Wati, 2014). Discrimination is being received from the society, where most of the people acknowledge the fault comes from the women as being not able to keep their family intact. Other cases come from the sexual harassment. According to Ni Luh Putu Nilawati as the Director of Legal Aid Foundation in Bali, cases of violence have been happened regularly in Singaraja (KBKNews, 2016). Most of the performer comes from members of the internal family, close relatives, and neighbors. She notes the cause of gender violence is the lack of people's understanding by the definition of violence itself. The less-educated society and economic disparity increases gender inequality among the people. Therefore, she states "socialization over the definition of violence needs to be done, whereby violence is a crime that violates the law" (KBKNews, 2016).
The effort to change women's paradigm in the social sphere needs to be done by the inner circle of the family and the supporting institutions, whereby education is one significant factor to increase women's respectability in the society (Antonius
Sanjaya Kyabeni, personal communication, June 19, 2015). For gaining enough educational background, the people will respect gender equality through the distribution of inheritance (Ni Putu Aniek Sumartini, personal communication, June 24, 2015). Although discrimination over women have dominantly appeared in the social sphere, but changes over gender inequality occurred in the political arena. It comes from the 30% quotas in the parliamentary representation of women, where Balinese women are having struggles in order to reach it. According to Sumartini, the Commission of General Election give opportunities for women to have representative rights to lead the people (Ni Putu Aniek Sumartini, personal communication, June 24, 2015). In 2014, Tutik Wardani was the only woman's candidate for the nomination of being Regent of Singaraja. In her career, she built Kerta Husada Hospital for giving help to the underprivileged people and to form self-image for being a decent candidate of a Regent (Ni Putu Aniek Sumartini, personal communication, June 24, 2015). Her program was directed to the social matters and community services, in which it was needed due to the people of Singaraja. However, she lost the local election against her opponent's Putu Agus Suradnyana. The people had chosen him because the paradigm of a female leaderships is biased, weak, and relying too much on confidantes (Ni Putu Aniek Sumartini, personal communication, June 24, 2015). Therefore, the involvement of women in politics causes alteration in their cultural identity. In the reference of Kyabeni, the aim of Gema Nusantara
is to criticize and make changes to the local traditions through seminars, workshops, and educational trainings on gender issues to the Singaraja society (Antonius Sanjaya Kyabeni, personal communication, June 19, 2015). By giving social educational background, Kyabeni expected the discrimination over Balinese women would change and they could position themselves as equal as the Balinese men in the society.
4.3. The Representation of NGO: Study Case in Denpasar
As the capital city of Bali, Denpasar has been known as the center of government, area of social and political development, and touristic areas. However, the appearance on gender inequality happened in several cases in Denpasar. Some cases on woman's discrimination came from the non-governmental Bali Legal Aid Foundation and Bali Sruti. From an interview with the head of the foundation, Yastini (2015) claimed several cases would appear in each month, such as domestic violence and violation over woman's right in the local tradition. There were three cases of conflict in marriages in June 2015. First, a non-Balinese woman got married to Balinese man who has two sons. The problem appeared when his wife was expelled from the male's house and the male family will have to assume the responsibility as the mother in caring for the son. Second, a Balinese widower who has a three-year-old son, was forced to give the son to the male's family in order to follow the tradition of purusa. Third, a Balinese woman who positioned herself to be the second wife of a man, whereby the first wife could not give a son to the family. Therefore, the
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second wife gave birth to a son and his name should be the combination of the husband and his first wife. After eight months of giving birth, the second wife was forced to withdraw from their house (Ni Luh Gede Yastini, personal communication, May 15, 2015). By these three cases, most of the victims were women who were deprived of their rights as a woman and a mother. They came to the foundation to seek help and justice. Yastini stated that the role of local leaders and religious leaders are significant in solving the problem of gender inequality. However, most of the leaders viewed these cases as a domestic problem in which they could not intervene (Ni Luh Gede Yastini, personal
communication, May 15, 2015). Thus, Bali Legal Aid Foundation is using traditional approaches for the society to accept the terminology of feminism. They try to change the perspective of women being in the second position in the society by giving mediation in the notion of loving others, asah asih asuh (educate, love, and fostering), and mutual respect. This institution is directed to the movement of awareness and workshop for gender equality in Denpasar (Ni Luh Sukawati, personal communication, July 08, 2015). NGO of Bali Sruti also giving mediation through policy advocacies and try to change women's paradigm in the Balinese family. According to Rahayu (2015), woman's role in Balinese society is by accomplishing domestic duties, menyama braya (respecting other's freedom), and contributing to household income (Jha, 2004; Agung, 2017). She stated the institution is providing social training in order to show on how to manage equal rights for male and female individuals. Other
institutions come from the governmental organization such as P2TP2 Bali and BP3A, focusing themselves on the issue of gender inequality and child abuse. By the enactment of Protection Law No. 23/2002 and Domestic Violence Law No. 23/2004, these two organizations aim to give security through socialization in the society. In the level of policy, the Regional Working Unit need to make policy-planning referring to gender-responsiveness (Ni Luh Sukawati, personal communication, July 08, 2015). In addressing cases on gender, P2TP2 is mediating and advocating the regulation of gender equality to the society.
5. Conclusion
This article examined the role of NGOs in the framework of gender inequality in the scope of Balinese society, where cultural background and customary law based on the patrilineal system. By viewing at the historical background, Hinduism has been the core of the people, in which the existence of local kingdoms became the symbol of sanctity of the state. Puri, as the concept of the state, used the device of 'patriarchal communism' for controlling the village society as clientelism. In this concept, local kingdoms influenced the system on the Balinese society, especially the structure of the family. From the family perspective, women had economic values in the concept of matchmaking - where the father would bargain her values to the male's family. Modernization, the feminist movement, and other laws influenced how society perceives women. Nevertheless, the existence of the patriarchal system is strongly applied in the concept of purusa. This concept
focuses on the importance of male offspring as the successor of Balinese family considering the right of inheritance. The role of women in the system of purusa become the second position in the society, by dealing with domestic work and child care. Discrimination over women also increases in which the role of NGOs has been developed since 1998.
Communities such as Karangasem, Singaraja and Denpasar significantly benefited from the existence of NGOs in Bali. The notion of conventional solidarity has been seen in the work of the NGOs by providing reformation in the social structure. They contribute support on the victims by helping, accompanying and defending the oppressed groups towards their rights. Moreover, NGOs shared common beliefs and goals to decrease the number of discriminations over Balinese women. For example, the Women Crisis Center (WCC) in Karangasem gives advocacy, solution and assistance to the victims by giving shelters. The representation of NGOs in Singaraja and Denpasar have the same aims with WCC in Karangasem, whereby Gema Nusantara Bali Legal Aid Foundation and Bali Sruti give mediation to the society by using workshops, seminars and mentors for providing social trainings referring to gender equality. Moreover, in the scope of reflective solidarity, Balinese women try to defend their rights as an individual becomes an exclusion of their groups. In this notion, reflective solidarity creates a picture of universality within the real identities of every individual, such as Tutik Wardani. She nominated herself to be the Regent of Singaraja, who challenge the traditional values of a
woman. The changes over her role in the society create a dynamic process over cultural identity over Balinese women. The concept of "Balinese women become the second position after men" is changing due to her role as a politician and a local leader. Therefore, education becomes a significant factor for Balinese women to change their status in the society.
Acknowledgment
This work has been greatly helped by the supervision of Elena Trubina for her valuable suggestions to increase the quality of the article. I would also be thankful for the help of the Department of Social Philosophy, Ural Federal University, for their willingness to help me throughout the process of this paper.
The impact of Women NGO activity on the value of the Balinese women in the scope of the globalizing world Ni Wayan Radita Novi Puspitasari
Ural Federal University named after the first
President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin This paper attempts to explore the value of Balinese women in the scope of the globalizing world, where the focus is laid about the role of Women NGO's and their position in the society. Such a work would require us to consider comprehensively the negative factors besetting and conditioning the cultural identity of Balinese women in the society, and then, to relate it interrogatively to their consistencies in perception of gender injustices. The patriarchal system has significant role in maintaining the structure of the society in which it influences the life of Balinese women. As a result, local women hardly permeate the gender barriers to develop themselves in another social discourse. Some of the educated-women, who tries to become representative of women's legislative candidates, convey the uncertainty of losing their cultural identity and the discrimination by being 'the second position after men'. The concept of reflective solidarity will be a model of analyzing the contextualization of Balinese culture as predominantly-sided to the system of patriarchy. Using the descriptive-analytical
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paradigm will be applied to investigate academic literature and conceptual approach in relation to NGO and the position of women in the Balinese society.
Keywords: gender inequality, NGO, cultural identity, authenticity and solidarity
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