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УДК: 541.14
Hummedov G.
Lecturer of the department of physical chemistry at Makhtumkuli Turkmen state university Ashgabat, Turkmenistan Bashimova A., Begenjova G.
2nd year students of the faculty of chemistry Makhtumkuli Turkmen state university Ashgabat, Turkmenistan
THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY Abstract
Physical chemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the physical and chemical properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. It emerged as a distinct scientific discipline in the 19th century, building on key concepts from both physics and chemistry. Important milestones in its history include the development of thermodynamics, the molecular theory of matter, the kinetic theory of gases, and the advent of quantum mechanics. The early 20th century saw the emergence of physical chemistry as a formal field, with major contributions from scientists like Niels Bohr, Erwin Schrodinger, and J. Willard Gibbs. Modern physical chemistry continues to evolve with advances in computational chemistry, nanotechnology, and biophysical chemistry, offering crucial insights into the molecular mechanisms behind chemical processes. This article explores the key historical developments that shaped physical chemistry and highlights its current role in addressing global scientific and technological challenges.
Keywords:
physical chemistry, history of physical chemistry, thermodynamics, molecular theory, chemical kinetics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, chemical equilibrium, computational chemistry, nanotechnology, biophysical chemistry, surface chemistry, catalysis.
Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the physical and chemical properties of matter and the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. It is a multidisciplinary field that bridges the gap between physics and chemistry, offering insights into the principles governing chemical behavior at the molecular and atomic levels. The history of physical chemistry is a tale of integrating concepts from physics, mathematics, and chemistry, which have enabled scientists to understand the mechanisms behind chemical processes.
One of the key turning points in the development of chemistry came with the work of Antoine Lavoisier in the late 18th century. Lavoisier's formulation of the law of conservation of mass in 1789, which states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions, laid the foundation for modern chemical thought. His systematic approach to chemical analysis and reaction mechanisms was a significant step toward transforming alchemy into a science.
The 19th century was a period of great scientific progress that significantly contributed to the formation of physical chemistry as a distinct discipline. The key developments during this time included advances in thermodynamics, the molecular theory of matter, and kinetic theory, which explained the behavior of gases and chemical reactions. Thermodynamics: In the early 19th century, scientists like Sadi Carnot, Rudolf Clausius, and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) developed the foundations of thermodynamics, which describes the relationships between energy, heat, and work. The development of the first law of thermodynamics (the law of conservation of energy) and the second law (which introduced the concept of entropy) were instrumental in
understanding energy transformations during chemical reactions. The work of Josiah Willard Gibbs, particularly his formulation of chemical potential and the concept of Gibbs free energy, was crucial for the later development of chemical equilibrium theory. Molecular Theory: The molecular theory of matter, which proposed that matter is composed of small particles (atoms and molecules), began to take shape in the 19th century. Scientists like John Dalton and Amedeo Avogadro contributed to the understanding of the atomic and molecular nature of substances. Avogadro's hypothesis, which suggested that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain an equal number of molecules, played a critical role in the development of molecular theory. Kinetic Theory of Gases: In the 1850s, James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann developed the kinetic theory of gases, which explains gas behavior in terms of the motion of individual molecules. This theory introduced the concept that the temperature of a gas is related to the average kinetic energy of its molecules, providing a link between macroscopic thermodynamic properties and microscopic molecular behavior. At the turn of the 20th century, physical chemistry began to emerge as a separate field of study, distinct from both physics and traditional chemistry. The advent of quantum mechanics and advances in statistical mechanics revolutionized the understanding of chemical reactions and molecular structure. Important milestones during this period included: Quantum Chemistry: The development of quantum mechanics in the 1920s by scientists such as Werner Heisenberg, Niels Bohr, and Erwin Schrödinger opened new frontiers in understanding atomic and molecular behavior. Quantum chemistry, which applies the principles of quantum mechanics to chemical systems, provided tools to explain chemical bonding, the structure of atoms and molecules, and the behavior of electrons in atoms and molecules.
The history of physical chemistry is a fascinating story of interdisciplinary collaboration and scientific advancement. From the early days of alchemy and the discovery of the law of conservation of mass to the development of quantum chemistry and computational modeling, physical chemistry has been instrumental in shaping our understanding of the natural world. References:
1. Atkins, P., & de Paula, J. (2014). Physical Chemistry (10th ed.). Oxford University Press.
2. McQuarrie, D. A., & Simon, J. D. (1997). Physical Chemistry: A Molecular Approach. University Science Books.
3. Laidler, K. J. (1987). Chemical Kinetics. Harper & Row.
©Hummedov G., Bashimova A., Begenjova G., 2024
УДК: 54.073: 615.4: 546.25
Аллакулов С.
Преподаватель кафедры неорганической и аналитической химии
ТГУ имени Махтумкули г. Ашхабад. Туркменистан Гелдиева Ш.
Студентка химического факультета ТГУ имени Махтымкули
г. Ашхабад. Туркменистан
НАНОХИМИЧЕСКИЕ ТЕХНОЛОГИИ ДЛЯ ПОЛУЧЕНИЯ НЕОРГАНИЧЕСКИХ МЕДИЦИНСКИХ ПРЕПАРАТОВ
Аннотация
Статья посвящена использованию нанохимических технологий для синтеза неорганических медицинских препаратов. Рассматриваются различные методы получения наночастиц и их применения в
