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THE GENDER WAGE GAP AMONG RECENT GRADUATES IN KYRGYZSTAN: A QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF WORKPLACE TYPES
A.C. Abdykaimova1, Product Manager
I.M. Saipidinov2, Candidate of Economic Sciences, Associate Professor
1iHub LLC
2Osh State University
1(Kyrgyzstan, Bishkek)
2(Kyrgyzstan, Osh)
DOI:10.24412/2411-0450-2024-11-2-6-12
Abstract. This paper explores the gender wage gap immediately following graduation, focusing on Kyrgyzstan. It examines how various factors, including workspace types - startups, corporations, and medium-sized companies - affect wages for male and female graduates. By analyzing survey data, economic implications, and visual representations, this research aims to shed light on the systemic barriers contributing to wage disparities and propose actionable solutions for promoting gender equality in the labor market.
Keywords: gender wage gap, labor market disparities, workplace segregation, recent graduates, Kyrgyzstan labor market, gender inequality, wage negotiation, occupational segregation, salary disparities by gender, startups, corporations, SMEs.
The gender wage gap is one of the most significant forms of economic inequality, with women globally earning, on average, 24% less than men in various sectors, despite progress in education and increased participation in the labor force. The persistence of this wage disparity is not just an economic issue but also a societal one, as it reflects deeper structural and cultural barriers that limit women's full participation in the workforce. Addressing this gap is crucial for fostering economic growth and ensuring equality in the labor market. While the gender wage gap is present in many countries worldwide, its magnitude and causes vary across different national and cultural contexts. According to the Global Gender Gap Index, Kyrgyzstan ranks 90th out of 146 countries in 2024, with a score of 0.7, reflecting considerable gender inequality in economic participation [1].
Kyrgyzstan, a country that gained independence in 1991, has undergone substantial political and economic transformation. The transition from a Soviet-era economy to a market economy has reshaped the labor market, with women facing disproportionate challenges. During the Soviet era, gender equality in the workforce was emphasized, and women were significantly represented in various sectors. However, following the country's transition to a market-based economy, many women experienced job losses, particularly
in the public sector, pushing them into lower-paying, informal work. This shift to lower-paying jobs, combined with continued gender expectations around family and domestic responsibilities, has contributed to the widening wage gap between men and women in Kyrgyzstan [2].
In addition to these structural challenges, cultural norms continue to reinforce this gap. The expectation that women should balance work and family responsibilities leads to a "double burden" that limits their career advancement and wage potential. Despite making up 56% of university graduates in Kyrgyzstan, women's participation in the labor force has fallen from 58.4% in 1990 to approximately 48% in 2021, which is a clear indication of the barriers women face in accessing equal economic opportunities [3]. Furthermore, in sectors like corporate organizations, women earn as little as 60% of their male counterparts' salaries, underscoring the persistence of gender-based wage disparities across different sectors in the world [4].
The purpose of this study is to investigate the wage gap among recent university graduates in Kyrgyzstan, specifically focusing on how different types of organizations—such as startups, corporations, and medium-sized enterprises—affect initial wages for men and women. Given all these circumstances, we hypothesized that significant wage disparities exist across these sectors, with
women earning less than men, particularly in industries such as startups and NGOs. This study aims to address several key questions: Are there wage disparities among recent graduates in Kyr-gyzstan? If no gap exists initially, why does it widen over time? How do starting salaries differ across types of organizations? How significantly do negotiation practices matter in the initial salary and its growth?
RESULTS
The results indicate clear gender-based wage disparities, which vary significantly across different types of organizations, suggesting that both sector and workplace type play a crucial role in perpetuating these inequalities. A key component of this study was understanding how men
and women are distributed across sectors. The survey revealed distinct patterns in sectoral employment: women were more likely to be employed in sectors such as NGOs and SMEs, which are generally lower-paying, while men were more likely to work in higher-paying sectors like startups and international companies. In particular, 24.3% of female respondents worked in international companies, compared to 12.5% of female respondents. Additionally, only 18.8% of women worked in SMEs, while men were overrepresented in startups and large corporations (Figure 1). This suggests that gendered sectoral segregation still influences where individuals end up working, with women more likely to occupy lower-paying jobs from the start.
Figure 1. Types of workplace distribution by gender
Bar graph showing the percentage of male and female employees across different sectors: NGOs, startups, small and medium enterprises (SMEs), international companies, and public institutions. Data were collected from 71 participants (38 women, 33 men) through an anonymous survey. Statistical analysis included descriptive statistics and t-tests.
Gender Wage Gaps by Sector The wage gap across different sectors was examined by comparing the average starting salaries of men and women. On average, women earned 18.7% less than men, with the gap varying greatly depending on the sector.
Average Salary = 1 ^^ '
• Female Average Salary: 19,906 KGS
• Male Average Salary: 24,466 KGS
Average Male Salary — Average Female Salary Gap = -
Average Male Salary
x 100%
24,466 - 19,906 24.466
x 100% « 18.7%
In startups, the wage gap was particularly pronounced, with women earning 30.9% less than
men. Women in NGOs also faced a significant gap, earning 31.6% less than men in similar posi-
tions (Figure 2). In contrast, international companies showed a much smaller gap of just 1.2%, suggesting that these organizations may have more standardized or equitable pay structures.
Startups: Women earned 30.9% less than men (30,500 KGS vs. 44,167 KGS).
NGOs: Women earned 31.6% less than men (15,167 KGS vs. 22,167 KGS).
International Companies: A small gap of 1.2% (26,611 KGS vs. 26,929 KGS).
SMEs: A minimal gap of 1.4% (18,400 KGS vs. 18,667 KGS).
These results suggest that sectoral differences are a significant factor in the gender wage gap, and while international companies and small/medium businesses show the narrowest wage gaps, sectors such as startups and NGOs display higher wage discrepancies, with men consistently earning more, showing that gender disparities persist across a wide range of employment types.
Figure 2. Average salary by type of workplace and gender
Bar graph displaying the mean starting salaries for male and female employees across various workplace types. Women earn, on average, 18.7% less than men, with startups and NGOs showing the highest wage disparities (30.9% and 31.6%, respectively). Statistical tests include t-tests; error bars indicate mean ± SD.
Salary Negotiation and Gender Another factor examined was the role of salary negotiation in determining wage disparities. A significant portion of women (58.7%) did not negotiate their salary, while the majority of men (65.9%) did. (Table 1)
Table 1. Negotiation practices between genders
Negotiated Salary? Female Male
Yes 41.3% 65.9%
No 58.7% 34.1%
The difference in negotiation rates might explain why men experience faster salary growth over time. Negotiating initial salaries often sets a higher baseline, leading to compounded wage growth.
Female Male
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Figure 3. Initial salary by gender
Box plot comparing the distribution of initial salaries for men and women. Women earn, on average, 3,748 KGS less than men in starting salaries. Differences were assessed using multiple regression analysis (p = 0.317).
Regression Analysis
To assess the impact of gender on salary, a multiple regression model was used. The model included variables such as gender and work experience to predict starting salaries.
Table 2. Regression model summary. Model Summary b_
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate
1 0.183 a 0.033 0.005 15315.835
Predictors: (Constant), Gendercose, work Dependent Variable: initial
Initial Salary £ = + ^ (Gender ¿) + ^(Negotiation ¿) + e£
The analysis found that, on average, women earned 3,748 KGS less than men in their starting salaries. However, this result was not statistically significant (p = 0.317). The model's low R-squared value (0.033) suggests that gender alone does not fully explain salary disparities, pointing to the influence of other factors, such as sector and organizational type, which were explored further in the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition
(Figure 4). It shows that differences in observable factors like starting salaries explain part of the gap (explained component: -2130.62). However, the unexplained component (-312.36) highlights structural inequalities, with males having steeper salary growth (initial salary coefficient: 0.903 vs. 0.781 for females). Both analyses suggest that sectoral and organizational factors play a larger role in salary disparities than gender alone, as indicated by the regression's low R-squared value (0.033).
nt
Salar
y
Figure 4. Current salary by salary negotiation and gender
Bar graph showing the impact of salary negotiation on current salaries for men and women. Women are less likely to negotiate (41.3% vs. 65.9% for men), resulting in lower starting salaries and slower salary growth over time. Statistical tests include t-tests and regression analysis; error bars represent mean ± SD.
DISCUSSION
This study confirms that the gender wage gap persists among recent university graduates in Kyrgyzstan, with women earning, on average, 18.7% less than men across various sectors. The results of the study suggest that organizational type and sector play significant roles in determining the extent of the wage gap. The wage gap was most pronounced in startups and NGOs, where women earned as much as 31.6% less than their male counterparts. In contrast, international companies showed the smallest wage disparity, with women earning just 1.2% less than men. These findings align with the hypothesis that workplace type significantly influences gendered wage disparities, with more equitable pay structures found in larger organizations and international companies, which are often subject to more standardized global pay practices.
The analysis of salary negotiation practices provided additional insight into the wage gap. The fact that fewer women negotiate their starting salaries compared to men is a key contributor to the disparity in wages. Negotiating starting salaries is an essential factor in setting wage levels, and the data suggest that women's reluctance or lower likelihood to engage in salary negotiation leads to lower starting salaries, which in turn compounds the wage gap over time. These find-
ings suggest that addressing negotiation disparities could help narrow the gender wage gap in Kyrgyzstan.
While gender was found to have a negative impact on starting salaries, the regression analysis indicated that this impact was not statistically significant, suggesting that other factors-such as industry, sector, and negotiation practices-may have a more substantial influence on salaries than gender alone. The Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition further corroborated this by indicating that most of the wage gap could be explained by initial salary disparities, with a smaller portion attributed to structural factors, such as organizational policies or implicit biases.
Limitations and Influences
Several limitations must be considered when interpreting these results. The sample size (71 respondents) was relatively small, which limits the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the study relied on self-reported data, which could introduce biases. The cross-sectional nature of the survey also means that it provides a snapshot of the gender wage gap at a specific point in time. Future research could benefit from a longitudinal design to track how wage disparities evolve over time and how negotiation practices impact the long-term career progression of women and men.
One of the more surprising findings was the association between work experience and lower starting salaries for women. This result challenges the assumption that more work experience should lead to higher salaries, especially for women. It suggests that, in Kyrgyzstan's labor market, women's work experience may not be valued as highly as men's, or certain sectors may
prefer hiring new graduates who come with lower salary expectations. Future research could explore whether sector-specific biases or organizational preferences contribute to this trend.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Survey Design and Data Collection
An anonymous online survey was administered to recent university graduates (within 1-2 years of graduation) in Kyrgyzstan. The survey, available in Kyrgyz and Russian, consisted of 20 questions about participants' gender, sector of employment, starting salary, and salary negotiation practices. The survey was open for six weeks (May-June 2024), with responses collected from 71 participants (38 women, 33 men). Respondents were recruited via social media, alumni networks, and professional organizations.
Participant Demographics
The sample included university graduates from various disciplines, including economics, engineering, education, and social sciences. The respondents were employed across sectors such as:
- NGOs
- Startups
- Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)
- International companies
- Public sector institutions
Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 28.0) and R (Version 4.1.0). Descriptive statistics summarized sector distribution and starting salary, with two-sample t-tests used to compare salary differences between genders. A multiple regression analysis was performed to assess the relationship between gender, work experience, and sector on starting salary. The regression model included: Gender (coded as 1 for male, 0 for female) Work experience (in months since graduation) Sector (categorized into NGOs, startups, SMEs, international companies, and public sector institutions)
The dependent variable was starting salary (KGS).
The Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition was used to break down the wage gap into:
Explained component: Differences attributed to observable characteristics like sector, experience, and education.
Unexplained component: Differences not accounted for by observable factors, potentially reflecting discrimination or other unmeasured biases.
References
1. World Health Organization. (2022, July) Women in the health and care sector earn 24 percent less than men. - URL: https://www.who.int/news/item/13-07-2022-women-in-the-health-and-care-sector-earn-24-percent-less-than-
men#:~:text=GENEVA%20%E2%80%93%20Women%20in%20the%20health,World%20Health%200 rganization%20(WHO).
2. World Bank, "Gender norms in flux", 2018. - URL: https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/ru/827841511291027842/pdf/.
3. World Economic Forum, "Global gender gap report 2024," 2024. - URL: https://www.weforum.org/publications/global-gender-gap-report-2024/.
4. United Nations Population Fund, "Women of kyrgyzstan: Family and society, young population and high population growth rate," 2024. - URL: https://kyrgyzstan.unfpa.org/en/publications/women-kyrgyzstan-family-and-society-young-population-and-high-population-growth-rate.
5. Bauguess S. (2024, October) Gender pay gap statistics. - URL: https://www.forbes.com/advisor/business/gender-pay-gap-statistics/.
6. UN Women, "Gender in society perception study: Kyrgyz republic", 2020. - URL: https://eca.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2020/04/gender-in-society-perception-study-kyrgyz-republic.
7. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2022, April) Kyrgyzstan at a crossroads: Immense opportunity to harness the potential of women - un experts. - URL: https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/04/kyrgyzstan-crossroads-immense-opportunity-harness-potential-women-un-experts.
ГЕНДЕРНЫЙ РАЗРЫВ В ОПЛАТЕ ТРУДА СРЕДИ НЕДАВНИХ ВЫПУСКНИКОВ КЫРГЫЗСТАНА: КОЛИЧЕСТВЕННЫЙ АНАЛИЗ ТИПОВ РАБОЧИХ
МЕСТ
А.^ Абдыкаимова1, продукт менеджер И.М. Сайпидинов2, канд. экон. наук, доцент 1ОсОО «Ш^Ь»
2Ошский государственный университет 1(Кыргызстан, г. Бишкек) 2(Кыргызстан, г. Ош)
Аннотация. Данная работа исследует гендерный разрыв в заработной плате сразу после окончания учебы с фокусом на Кыргызстан. В исследовании рассматриваются различные факторы, в том числе типы рабочих мест - стартапы, корпорации и средние компании - и их влияние на зарплаты мужчин и женщин-выпускников. Путем анализа данных опроса, экономических последствий и визуальных представлений, исследование направлено на выявление системных барьеров, способствующих разнице в оплате труда, а также на предложение практических решений для содействия гендерному равенству на рынке труда.
Ключевые слова: гендерный разрыв в зарплатах, неравенства на рынке труда, сегрегация рабочих мест, недавние выпускники, рынок труда Кыргызстана, гендерное неравенство, переговоры о зарплате, профессиональная сегрегация, различия в зарплатах по гендеру, стартапы, корпорации, малые и средние предприятия.
