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Givi TAKTAKISHVILI
D.Sc. (Econ.), Researcher at Caucasus Interconnect (Amsterdam, the Netherlands).
THE DUTCH GOLDEN AGE AND THE CAUCASUS
Abstract
In this article, the author analyzes the reasons for the interest of Dutch scientists and travelers in the Caucasus in general and in Georgia in particular in the 17th century—the Golden Age of the Neth-
erlands. He goes on to describe the history, culture, and economic and political conditions of the peoples living in the Caucasian region, as well as the location, natural conditions, and climate of their countries as pre-
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sented in the works of Dutch scientists and travelers. The author relates the trade potential of the Caucasian countries based on the accounts of Dutch scholars and travelers, surveys the sources of the works of Dutch scholars, and tries to find out whether or not these Dutch scholars and travelers actually went to the Caucasus, particularly Georgia, and whether their visual impressions of their travels were an important source of their
works. The author emphasizes the importance of their works about the Caucasus, especially for further research of the history of the Caucasus in general and of Georgia in particular.1
1 In this article, I often mention "the Caucasus in general and Georgia in particular" because the Dutch scholars and travelers placed special emphasis on the Georgians and Georgia when describing the Caucasian peoples and countries in their works.
KEYWORDS: Dutch Golden Age, Dutch travelers Nicolaas Witsen, Olfert Dapper, Jan Struys, the Caucasus, Georgia, (Caucasian) Albania, Abkhazians, Circassians, Armenians.
Instead of an Introduction Europe in Search of New Trade Routes
During the Dutch Golden Age (around the 17th century), trade, science, art, and the military underwent rapid development in the Netherlands. In addition, Dutch sailors and travelers studied the different corners of the world, looking for and researching new trade markets and trade routes. As a result, more and more merchant vessels navigated from the Netherlands to the Indian, Chinese, and Indonesian islands and other coasts. But there was fierce competition among the Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, and British sailors. Also, the route from Europe to Southeast Asia was long, dangerous, and costly. Moreover, after the collapse of the Mongol Empire, the Turks took the areas around the Black Sea under their control, so the ancient caravan route from China to Europe was closed. Therefore, European merchants and navigators began searching for a new sea route from Europe to Southeast Asia via the Arctic Ocean. Dutch navigators and explorers were in the vanguard of the seekers of this new sea route. Despite an unsuccessful expedition led by Dutch navigators and explorers Willem Barentsz and Jacob van Heemskerck in 1596, the Dutch navigators and explorers tried to repeat this expedition in 1664. They vainly submitted their request to the States General of the Netherlands for assistance for their expedition. Twelve years later, on King of England Charles II's initiative, a sea expedition was organized once again in this direction, which also ended in failure. The attempt of European, including Dutch, navigators and explorers to reach Southeast Asia via the Arctic Ocean was unsuccessful.2
Throughout the 17th century, the Netherlands also had intensive trade relations with Persia, where Dutch traders bought local raw silk and sold the products of the Dutch textile industry. While trade relations with south Iran were carried out by sea (from Africa), trade relations with northern
2 It should be noted that today the importance of a trade navigation route from Europe to Asia (and vice versa) through the Arctic Ocean is growing. Whereas in 2010 only four vessels passed this way, in 2011, 34 vessels, and in 2012, 46 vessels traveled this route, although this is much less than the number of ships sailing via the Suez Canal from Europe to Asia and vice versa. But in the future, the importance of the North Sea trade route will continue to grow. On 5 September, 2013, the first Chinese cargo ship traveled through the Arctic Ocean from the Chinese port of Dalian to Rotterdam. It took this vessel 35 days to complete the journey, instead of the 46 days it normally took through the Suez Canal.
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Persia were pursued through Russia (via Arkhangelsk, the Volga, and the Caspian Sea) and the Levantine countries. But there was also strong competition (especially after the middle of the 17th century) between the English and Armenian (who mainly operated in the interests of Russia) merchants, on the one hand, and the Dutch merchants, on the other. These circumstances prompted the Dutch merchants to launch a new trade route through Germany and on via the Danube, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus to Persia.3
For the reasons given above, a possible trade route from Europe to the East Asian countries through the Caucasus and mainly through Georgia was of particular interest to the Europeans. Therefore, in the 17th and 18th centuries, many European and especially Dutch scholars and travelers were interested in the Caucasus in general and in Georgia in particular. They traveled to Georgia on their own or at the request of European businessmen. For example, German Adam Olearius (1603 -1671) traveled at the request of Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, for economic purposes; Frenchman Jean Chardin (1643-1713) was a member of the British East India Company; and Dutchman Nicolaas Witsen (1641-1717) was a member of the board and cartographer of the United East India Company— VOC, etc.
There was probably another circumstance that contributed to the Dutch scholars and travelers' interest in the Caucasus and Georgia. Indeed, after Iranian Shah Abbas (1587-1629) expelled the Portuguese from Hormuz Island in the Persian Gulf (1622) with the help of British troops, the Shah established control over the Strait of Hormuz. Then Shah Abbas strengthened state monopoly on silk trade and decided to replace the silk trade caravan route that went from Iran via Turkey to Europe with a shipping route from the port of Bandar Abbas (on the south coast of Iran, on the Persian Gulf) around Africa to Europe. The export of silk from Hormuz would provide the Shah with more revenue than export via Turkey, because Iran paid Turkey high custom duties. In exchange for their help, the English merchants received permission to establish a Trade Factory. It should be noted that later Dutch traders also established their Trade Factory in Bandar Abbas, and in 1645 they received the right to buy silk all over Iran. There was intense competition between the English and Dutch merchants in the trade of Iranian silk. Later, the Shah gave the same silk trade rights to French merchants, but he limited the rights of Dutch merchants to engage in silk trade in Iran.
In my opinion, the Dutch scholars and travelers who journeyed to the Caucasus in the 17th and 18th centuries were mainly interested in expanding the silk market and searching for a new trade route. The Dutch scholars and travelers also had close ties with other European colleagues interested in the Caucasus, and they often exchanged information. For example, Nicolaas Witsen had close relations with French merchant and voyager Jean Chardin, who traveled to the Caucasus and Persia on behalf of the British business community. They also had the same goals: to investigate the capacity of the Caucasian economic market and the possibility of restoring the trade route through the Caucasus to Persia. For example, during his second trip, the French merchant and voyager traveled in 1671-1679 from Europe to Persia via the Caucasus and particularly via Georgia. He had close ties first with French and later with English trade circles. It seems that Jean Chardin had a conversation with King of Kar-tli (eastern Georgia) Vakhtang V (1618-1675) about restoring the historical trade-transit route from Europe to Asia through Georgia, which is indicated in a letter from King Vakhtang V to Jean Chardin. He wrote: "For Europeans who wish to go to India via my country, this is a better way to travel than other ways. I'm sure that having gone this way once, they will never wish to travel another way in the future."4
3 See: J. Gommans, "Nederlandse textiel in het achttiende-eeuwse Perzie," BMGN (Bijdragen en mededelingen betreffende de geschiedenis der Nederlanden), 109 (1994) afl. 3, p. 430; E. Baasch, Holländische Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Jena, 1927, p. 291.
4 The Voyage of Jean Chardin to Persia and Other Eastern Countries (information about Georgia), Transl. from the French, research and comments by Mzia Mgaloblishvili, Metsniereba, Tbilisi, 1975, p. 34 (in Georgian).
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Thus, in the 17th-18th centuries, the European countries were extremely interested in the Caucasus. During this period, in addition to the above-mentioned travelers, the following people also traveled there: Germans Adam Olearius mentioned above and Engelbert Kaempfer (1651-1716), Italians Pietro Della Valle (1586-1652) and Teramo Cristoforo Castelli (1597-1659), and others. It should be noted that the main target of the Italian travelers in the Caucasus and in Georgia in particular was the Catholic missionary, but their writings about the Caucasus, including about Georgia, are also very interesting. It is worth noting that many of these works were immediately translated into English, French, Dutch, etc. The Dutch scholars were very familiar with the works of these and other European travelers and used them as sources for their compositions.
Of course, these scholars and travelers tried to seek as multifaceted and comprehensive information as possible about the countries situated in the new markets and on the new trade routes. Their interest was versatile and included the territory, borders, landscape, geographical characteristics, history, culture, religion, customs, traditions, system of governance, as well as the demographic, social, economic, and political conditions of the peoples living there. After being processed, a large part of this information was reflected in their works and publications. In this regard, we are interested in the works of Dutch scholars and travelers about the Caucasus in general and Georgia in particular.
Since the Dutch scholars and travelers placed the emphasis on the Georgians and Georgia when describing the Caucasian peoples and countries in their works, we will first take a look at what they write about Georgia and the Georgians.
Dutch Scientists and Travelers about Georgia and the Georgians
Dutch scholars and travelers Nicolaas Witsen, Olfert Dapper, and Jan Struys placed special emphasis on the Caucasus in general and Georgia in particular in their research, works, and publications about different countries of the world. Nicolaas Witsen was in close contact with Jean Chardin, Olfert Dapper, Jan Struys, and other scholars and travelers. Nicolaas Witsen used the publications of his colleagues—scholars and travelers (also works of Olfert Dapper and Jan Struys)—and expanded and deepened his knowledge about the Caucasus in general and Georgia in particular.
Olfert Dapper (1636-1689) was the first Dutch scholar who published descriptions of some of the Caucasian peoples, namely the Georgians, Abkhazians, Circassians, and Albanians, in his works. He also described Kurdistan. In general, he described the origin of these peoples' names, their countries' borders, customs, and habits, as well as the population, cities, system of governance, religion, flora and fauna, etc. His book Asia, or an Accurate Description of the Great Mogul Empire, and a Large Part of the Indies, All of Persia, Georgia, Mingrelia, etc.5 was published in Amsterdam in 1672. The title of this book shows that the author, after describing Great Mogul Empire, India, and Persia, gives a description of Georgia, Samegrelo, and other neighboring provinces. Here he described the origins of their names, borders, cities, flora and fauna, customs, traditions, system of governance, religion, etc.
For us the interesting part of this book begins with the descriptions of the whole of Georgia. At the beginning of his book, Olfert Dapper notes that Ancient Colchis and Iberia were olden-day Georgia and that the Georgians were descendants of the ancient Moschi. Later he described the borders of Georgia and noted that in the east Georgia borders on Albania, which is situated on the Caspian Sea
5 See: O. Dapper, Asia, of naukeurige beschryving van het rijk des GrootenMogols, en een groot gedeelte van Indien:... beneffens een volkome beschryving van geheel Persie, Georgie, Mengrelie en andere gebuur-geweste..., available at [http:// search.library.wisc.edu/catalog/citation?id=ocm07457261].
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and is now part of Persia and where the cities of Baku and Demirkapi or Derbent are located. In the south, it bordered almost right on Shirvan, in the west, on the Black Sea, and in the north on the Caspian Mountains, the branch of the Caucasian Mountain Range, which stretch from the Caspian to the Black Sea and protect Georgia from cold and looming clouds from the north. In the south, Georgia also borders on part of Armenia as far as Media, as well as on a small part of West Trabzon and a small part of Cappadocia. He goes on to tell of how the country's name changed: first it was Kolkheti, then Iberia, and finally Gurjistan and Georgia, as it is still called today. According to Olfert Dapper, the name comes from Saint George. The Greeks called it "Georgia," which in Greek means farmer. Even the Georgians called their country "Saqartvelo." He goes on to note that Georgia is divided into provinces: Imereti (of bashiachuk), Kakheti, Kardeli or Kardueli (Kartli), Gurieli (Guria), and Mingrelia (Samegrelo). He also described the Georgian provinces separately: Imereti (Bashiachuk), Kartli, Kakheti, Guria, and Samegrelo, as well as their landscapes, their natural conditions, their rivers, their cities (Tbilisi, Imereti (Kutaisi), Gori, Dzegani, Gremi, etc.), etc. He found Georgia to be a country with beautiful landscape and many mountains, forests, and rivers, as well as fertile soil.6
In this book, Olfert Dapper wrote that the inhabitants of the whole country speak Georgian, but they used two alphabets: Khutsuri in churches and for spiritual books and Mkhedruli for social life. He noted that the Georgian alphabet was very different from the Chaldean, Armenian, and Hebrew alphabets. Then he also noted that the Georgians were Christians and in the churches liturgy was held in Georgian and not in Greek. The Georgians were Christians at the time of Emperor Constantine (272-337), who held his court in Constantinople. Although the Georgians recognized the Patriarch of Constantinople, they did not submit to him. The Georgians had their own metropolitan.
It is also interesting for us to know what he thought of the Georgians. He wrote that the Georgians were not wild or ignorant people, but very virtuous despite their manners, which were very different from those of Europe. They were respectful toward their neighbors and not arrogant, they did not kick up any riots, but were diligent and sensible. However, Olfert Dapper said that the Georgians drank a lot, because they made their own wine. They brandished long swords and were engaged in a long struggle against the infidels or Mohammedans. Olfert Dapper found that the Georgian women were more friendly, more civilized, and more beautiful than Asian women. He described the men and women in Georgia as tall with black-brown eyes and ruddy complexions, which was due to the high wine consumption.7
After describing the historical problems and the difficult political situation in the country, he told of how the Turks and Persians tried to conquer the land and how the Georgians tried to defend themselves against the invaders in vain, as well as how Georgia was divided into small states and principalities, the problems of unity in Georgia (Georgia was united until 1507) and their causes. Olfert Dapper took pity on the plight of Georgia. What should the Georgians do to restore the country's unity? Olfert Dapper said that if they united their country and appointed a decent government, the problems would melt like snow in the sun.
In keeping with the title of his book, Olfert Dapper described in detail the Georgian provinces and in particular the provinces of Imereti (Bashiachuk), Kartli, Kakheti, Guria, and Samegrelo and their landscapes, natural conditions, and uniqueness (for example, it should be noted that when describing Samegrelo's (ancient Colchis) animal and bird world, he said that it was from there that the Argonauts brought pheasants to Greece). He also noted that the country had the best honey in the world and indicated the variety, which was especially true of a very white, firm and delicious honey, just like sugar. This honey could not be taken to Constantinople to be sold, because it was collected in the winter when navigation on the Black Sea was limited. He also spoke about another type of
See: O. Dapper, op. cit., pp. 696, 700.
6
7 See: Ibid., p. 697.
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honey collected by the mountain dwellers of Samegrelo when the laurel was in bloom. This honey was used for curative purposes in the absence of medicine. He went on to give a description of their rivers, cities (Tbilisi, Imereti (Kutaisi), Gori, Dzegani, Gremi, etc.), history, political situation, the struggle against Persian and Turkish invaders, etc.8
In the Georgian part of his book, after describing the Georgian provinces, Olfert Dapper wrote about the Lazica. He also described the Lazi people, who lived at that time and still live to this day in the southwestern Caucasus. Now the area inhabited by these people is part of Turkey. He wrote that the country of the Lazi or Qarti bordered on Georgia and that their land extended to Trebizond (Tra-bzon). Their country was mountainous and woody and located along the eastern coast of the Black Sea. The Lazi engaged in cattle-breeding and viticulture. This land was overgrown with trees that were covered in vines. In his book, Olfert Dapper wrote: "The Lazi, who are otherwise known as Kurti."9 We believe it is wrong to identify these two names. Historically, the Lazi were Mingrelians and even now Mingrelian is spoken. In the olden days, the Kardus or Kardukhs were called Colchis, who were the ancestors of the Lazi (or Kurten) and Mingrelains.10
In the last section of the Georgian part of his book, Olfert Dapper described the Black Sea and first reviewed what the Greek and Latin scholars and travelers called this sea, for example: Herodotus—Cimmerians Sea; Plutarch and Ptolemy—Pontus Sea; Pliny—Pontus Axenus, which means Inhospitable Sea; generally referred to as the Black Sea, in Latin it is Pontus Euxinus (Hospitable Sea).11 Then he gave a brief description of the Black Sea coast, in the words of Ammianus Marcellinus, and noted that there were shores, ports, and cities; there were beautiful houses, but most of them were damaged or falling down. There were also many unoccupied areas. The Black Sea was very stormy and thundery, especially in the winter; the north wind blew across it, and the sky over the sea was covered with clouds and darkness. He thought that this was what gave the sea its name and not the color of the sand or earth. There were no islands, but there were small cliffs close to the coast. He also noted that the Cossacks came to this sea from Poland to rob the Turks, playing the role of master and settling at the mouth of the river Dnieper, above the Black Sea.12
Whereas Olfert Dapper was a scholar, Jan Struys was a sail maker, and he often traveled to different countries and was hired by different companies as a mariner. He described his travels in his book The Voyages and Travels of John Struys through Italy, Greece, Muscovy, Tartary, Media, Persia, East-India, Japan, and Other Countries in Europe, Africa, and Asia (London, 1684).13 Jan Struys' third trip is the most interesting for us. When relating his impressions of his travels, Jan Struys described Daghestan, Daghestan's peoples, the Georgians, and other Caucasians. In 1668, he heard that an agent of the Russian czar was hiring men to sail across the Caspian Sea. He was taken on as a sail maker. In the Moscow kingdom, he traveled from the northern city of Novgorod to Astrakhan on the northern coast of the Caspian Sea and witnessed the revolt of Stepan Razin. During this trip, he was almost murdered by some Cossacks, but managed to escape, along with other sailors sentenced to death, by boat across the Caspian Sea. In Daghestan, they were enslaved. Jan Struys was released by Polish Ambassador of Georgian descent Bogdan Gurdziecki (16?? -1700) in the town of Shemakha in 1671. Jan Struys finally paid his boss a lump sum and went to Persia. Via Isfahan, he arrived in the port of Gombroon (Bandar Abbas) and then traveled to Batavia, where he began working for VOC (the United East India Company). He returned to the Netherlands in 1673.
8 See: Ibid., p. 731.
9 Ibidem.
10 See: Metropolitan Anania, Chapter XIII, "Tribes Living Historically in the Dioceses Lazica," Scientific-Historical Journal Svetitskhoveli, No. 2, 2011, pp. 197-248, and also see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_people].
11 For more details, see: [http://www.bible-history.com/maps/romanempire/Pontus-Euxinus.html].
12 See: O. Dapper, op. cit., pp. 731-732.
13 See the Dutch edition of this book: J. Struys, Aanmerkelijke en seer rampspoedige reysen door Italien, Turkijen, Persien, Tartarijen, Oost-Indien, Moscovien, enz, Amsterdam, 1676, and also the Russian edition: J. Struys, Tree puteshest-viia, Alexandria Publishers, Riazan, 2006.
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Different sources describe Bogdan Gurdziecki in different ways. According to Polish, Persian, and Georgian sources, he was previously ambassador to King of Kartli Rostom (1632-1658) in Poland, where he stayed on to live. Later, he became the greatest authority on all things Persian, Russian, and Caucasian and envoy to Polish kings John II Casimir Vasa (1648-1668) and John III Sobieski (16741696) in Persia. He was dispatched to Isfahan as the head of a Polish diplomatic mission, also part of the joint Russo-Polish diplomatic and economic efforts in Persia aimed at bringing the Safavid Persian government into an anti-Ottoman alliance. Henceforth, Gurdziecki played a role in diplomacy between Poland and Persia, as well as in some Russian-Georgian interaction.14 He always had friendly relations with Georgian kings Vakhtang V (1658—1675) and Georgi XII (1676-1688, 1703-1709), and during his journey to Persia and return, he always visited them. Jan Struys wrote in his book that Bogdan Gurdziecki sent a Polish doctor to work for King Vakhtang V. Also Bogdan Gurdziecki had his own estate both in Poland and in Georgia. Jan Struys described Bogdan Gurdziecki as a strict and brutal man.15
Jan Struys was delighted not only with the beauty of the Georgian women, but also with the capital of Georgia—"well-known Tbilisi." He knew that more than 150,000 Georgians were exiled from their villages and towns to Persia in 1616-1617 by an order of the Persian Shah. Some Georgians lived in Hasanabad, a district of the former Persian capital of Isfahan. Many of them were excellent merchants, just as there were many excellent Armenian merchants. The Shah appreciated them and respected them for their calm and obedient life and for their significant and large estimated income from trade, so they were allowed to live in a district near the Mahdi Sheik-Sabane mosque. But they wanted to live in the suburb of Isfahan, because they enjoyed living together.16 Jan Struys's book has been translated into English, French, German, Spanish, Russian, etc., but has not yet been translated into Georgian.
Nicolaas Witsen was in close contact with Olfert Dapper and Jan Struys, as well as with Jean Chardin; their books were an important information source for Nicolaas Witsen's work—Behelzende eene beschryving van verscheidene Tartersche en nabuuurige gewesten, in de Nooerer en oostelykste deelen van Azi, which was published in 1690 and in 1705 (a revised and expanded edition). This book was translated into Russian and published in 2010 in Amsterdam under the name Severnaia i Vostoch-naia Tartaria11 (Noord en Oost Tartarye). At that time, the Europeans mentioned Siberia "Tartarye." The work contains a lot of information about the history, geography, political situation, etc. of Russia and other neighboring countries.
Both Olfert Dapper and Nicolaas Witsen dedicated part of their book to Georgia, and Nicolaas Witsen gave a brief account of the history of Georgia from ancient times until the 17th century and of the 17th century in detail. He also wrote that Georgia (in ancient times Iveria or Iberia) consists of five provinces: Mingrelia (in ancient times Colchis), Guria, Imereti, Kartli, and Kakheti. Then he wrote that Christian Georgia was surrounded by Muslim countries that had quite a significant influence on Georgia. He went on to describe the Georgian opposition to the Ottoman and Persian invaders, which often ended in heavy defeat for Georgia. Under the Treaty of Amasiah (1555), the Ottoman Empire acquired West Georgia and Persia took East Georgia. When the Georgian resistance against the Turks and the Persians grew, they took revenge on the people by making them pay extra tribute. Also the Persians and the Turks instigated the Muslim peoples living in the Northern Caucasus against Georgia, whereby looting and destruction of this country went on not only in the border areas, but often in the interior too, said Nicolaas Witsen. Many Georgians were exiled to Persia; some sources say that more than 20,000 were driven from their villages and towns. Nicolaas Witsen was surprised that the Georgian cavalrymen, who fought valiantly for the Persian Shah against the Afghans in Af-
14 [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/Gurdziecki].
15 See: J. Struys, op. cit.
16 See: Ibidem.
17 N. Witsen, Severnaia i Vostochnaia Tartaria, Vol. II, Pegasus, Amsterdam, 2010.
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ghanistan and against the Indians in India, were given the opportunity for peace in their own country (Georgia). But that did not solve Georgia's problems.18
In his book, Nicolaas Witsen describes the landscape and the climate of Georgia, as well as the capital of the country and the capitals of the Georgian provinces. When describing the Caucasian Mountains, he used quotes from the book by Jean Chardin, The Travels of Sir John Chardin into Persia and the East Indies,19 and said that the mountains of the Caucasus were very high and it was very difficult to reach their peaks, since they were always covered with snow. The mountains were mostly covered with pine trees. These mountains were fertile and abundant in honey, fruit, wild boars, etc. all the way up to their peaks. The water in the rivers was clean. The Caucasian mountains, which lay between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, protected Georgia from the cold winds from the north, so the climate in the country was good, temperate, and dry.
Nicolaas Witsen's opinion about the Georgians is very interesting. Unlike some European writers, he found the Georgians very civilized. According to him, the Georgians were friendly, polite, and honest. The Georgians continuously waged war against the Muslims to defend their Christian faith. Nicolaas Witsen also thought that the Georgians were not stubborn and arrogant, but sociable and gullible. He said that the Georgians were naturally very inquisitive, but unfortunately had no opportunity to develop properly because they did not have good schools. Also Nicolaas Witsen stressed that the Georgians were the best and brightest people in East Asia and perhaps in the world. He also praised the tolerance of Georgians because many Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Turks, Persians, Indians, Tatars, Russians, and Europeans lived in Georgia and they were able to keep their own traditions and confess their faith. Their character, behavior, and qualities caused them much suffering at the hands of the occupants.20
Nicolaas Witsen went on to write that Georgia was a particularly fertile land. After irrigation, the land yielded a rich harvest. Life there was good and cheap. There were many types of good-tasting bread and fruit. The rivers were rich in various kinds of fish. The Georgian peasants had many cows, sheep, chickens, pigs, etc. The Georgian farmers produced excellent wines that they enjoyed drinking themselves and exported to other countries, such as Armenia, Persia, etc., just as silk was exported to neighboring countries (the Ottoman Empire, Persia, etc.). The author also described the defects of the Georgian character. He found that Georgians were inclined to drink too much and were not very devoted to their faith. In his book, Nicolaas Witsen published portraits of Georgian kings Archil II and Irakli I. These portraits are important for Georgian history because there are no others available. So nowadays Georgians know these ancestors from the portraits in Nicolaas Witsen's book. His book is also interesting and valuable for Georgian and Dutch scientists since it contains a Dutch-Georgian dictionary. Nicolaas Witsen compiled the dictionary with the cooperation of Georgian Prince Alexander Bagrationi. Nicolaas Witsen's book is also very interesting for Georgians since it has maps the author drew himself. These are some of the oldest maps of Georgia.
Dutch Scientists and Travelers about Other Caucasian Peoples
After describing Georgia and the Georgians, Olfert Dapper and Nicolaas Witsen went on to describe other Caucasian peoples in their above-mentioned books. Jan Struys also devoted part of his book to the Caucasian peoples.
18 See: Ibid., pp. 639-643.
19 See: The Travels of Sir John Chardin into Persia and the East Indies, London, 1686.
20 See: N. Witsen, op. cit., pp. 672-673.
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In addition, Olfert Dapper offered a description of the Lezghians, Abkhazians, Alans, Circassians, Adighe, Karachays, Albanians, and other peoples who lived in the Caucasus.
Here we will look at the characteristics of some of the Caucasian peoples offered by Olfert Dapper. For example, he notes that peoples lived in the north of the Caucasus (sic!) who were Turks called Abazians or Abkhazians. Their main activities were cattle-breeding and bird-catching. They owned large herds of cattle. They had many falcons and hawks and caught birds, which was their primary activity. They sold the birds in Georgia, Iran, and Constantinople. In the areas where the Abkhazians lived, the natural environment was healthy, beautiful, fertile, mountainous, and hilly. They did not live in towns, castles, or fortresses, but lived in communities of 15-20 families in family houses. Their houses and huts were situated on the top of hills and these settlements were fortified by surrounding moats and pillars. Here on the Black Sea was a port called Eschisumuni (Sukhumi), which operated all year round and to which ships came from Constantinople, Trebizond (Trabzon), Lazistan (modern Rize and Artvin provinces), Kaffa (currently known as Theodosia or Feodosia), etc. It is interesting that, as Olfert Dapper noted, the Abkhazians did not use sugar or salt and they often laughed at the Mingrelians, who had more delicious foods than Abkhazians themselves. Olfert Dapper also noted that the Abkhazians often fought with the Mingrelians and Circassians. Their wealth and merchandise consisted of skins, tissues, honey, and slaves. There was a natural exchange of commodities, because no currency yet circulated among them.21
Olfert Dapper went on to describe the opinions of the ancient Greeks and Roman historians about the Circassians, their origin, the location their country, and the country's borders. He noted that the Circassians lived in the Northern Caucasus from the mouth of the River Don, which used to be called Tanais, and along the coast of the Black Sea to the Abkhazian areas. In the east, the country's border turned northeast, passing through Daghestan and extending to Astrakhan. In the north, the Circassians lived in five mountainous areas. The author noted that, according to Adam Olearius, the capital of the Circassians was Terki. But the czar of Moskovia subdued these peoples with his martial power. The surrounding settlements were occupied by Russians and they allowed the Circassians to live in other places and villages, or in other special cities further upstream. Although they were under the subordination of princes or lords, these princes or lords themselves were vassals (loan-men) of the Russian czar and were subordinate to the Russian czar. They paid tribute to the czar, although only the bare minimum. The author described how the city was a stronghold of the Russian government, Russian troops, etc. After the author described the landscape around the capital, he wrote that the surroundings were woody but very low and ran under water. The countryside mainly consisted of streams that ran into the marshes of the Don and Kopa rivers, along with several other large and small streams, and was overgrown with cane and Calamus root.22
The author went on to note that, according Johan de Luca, the Circassians were the most beautiful people in the world. The men were strong of body and had broad faces. They had long coal-black hair. The women were also strong and could endure much, they had lovely faces, white skin, and rosy cheeks. They wore their hair, coal-black, in two long braided locks that hung down on either side of their face and they walked around with their heads uncovered. The Circassians were Muslims and Christians, but Muslims dominated. He wrote that the Circassians spoke in Circassian and Turkish. They had the same languages as other Tartars. But most Circassians could speak Russian. They did not have a special alphabet. They lived in wooden and cane houses and engaged in cattle-breeding and agriculture. The Circassians often had to fight the Tatars who lived nearby in order to repel their attacks, but they also often carried out armed attacks themselves for the purpose of robbery. The Circassians engaged in slave trade, as well as in the sale of deer, ox, tiger, and bear skins, of which there were plenty in the woods. It was considered unbecoming for nobles to engage in commerce and
See: O. Dapper, op. cit., p. 730.
; See: Ibid., pp. 732-734.
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sell their prey. Their job was to govern the people and protect them, and also assist them in hunting and warfare.23
After writing about the Circassians, Olfert Dapper described Albania. He wrote that to the east of Georgia came Albania, so called on behalf of the River Albanus. This country bordered in the east on the Caspian Sea, in the west on Georgia, in the north on part of the Asian Sarmatians, near the Caucasian mountains, and in the south on part of Armenia. The land was located between very high and almost inaccessible mountains through which one difficult road ran from Tartarye to Persia. The towns of Albania were Cipicche, Tarrakosie, Sobai, Chabarei, and Abacuas. Here the author noted that, according to Anania Shirakatsi, the city of Derbent was located in this region, which included the ancient city of Alexandria and was near the iron gates, or Demirkapi in Turkish. However, Ptolemy mentioned the ports of Albania, although they were not so well equipped as the other ports on the Caspian Sea.
Olfert Dapper proved that some scholars (Zwart, Anania, Olearius, etc.) noted that the towns of Derbent and Shemakha belonged to Shirvan. Then the author said that, according to Theuet, the town of Zitracha was a wealthy trade city, although not for long. Theuet also suggested that the capital city of Albania was Bambanoch. Olfert Dapper went on to describe the climate and landscape of Albania and said that the air of this country was very healthy and tempering. The country near Armenia toward the south was partly flat and partly mountainous. The River Kur and several other rivers made this area very fertile and always green. According to Theuet, this land belonged to the Tartars. The inhabitants were Christians, but schismatics (Orthodox Christians) who, like the Georgians, followed the Greek rites.24
Thus Olfert Dapper described some of the nations of the Caucasus. In contrast to Olfert Dapper, Nicolaas Witsen paid more attention to the Caucasian nations in his major work Noord en Oost Tar-tarye, such as the Abkhazians, Circassians, Kumyks, the peoples of Daghestan, etc. For example, according to Nicolaas Witsen, the country of Abazians, Abkhazians, or Abasians bordered on Same-grelo in the east and extended in the west to the river Kuban. The Abkhazians mainly lived in the mountains and they almost had the same lifestyle as the Circassians. They spoke a particular language, but did not have an alphabet. They were Christians, but their faith was full of immorality and superstition. So, actually they were idol-worshippers. In addition to agriculture and cattle-breeding, their main activity was stealing boys and girls. They were daring pirates and sometimes hindered navigation on the Black Sea from Constantinople to Kaffa. They did not use money in their country; they exchanged slaves, wax, and furs for clothes, bullets, and other things. They had a good port in Sukhumi. They did not engage in fishing, although there was a lot of fish in the sea. They were often at war with the Circassians and Mingrelians.25
Then Nicolaas Witsen described the Circassians and their country. According to Nicolaas Wit-sen, the Circassians' country was located near the Caspian Sea, along the Caucasian Mountains and extended to the Black Sea. Their neighbors in the north were the Nogais of Astrakhan, in the south the Tatars of Daghestan and Tarki, and in the west the Abasians and Mingrelians. In the olden days, when the Circassian people were united, they were very strong and successfully repelled hostile attacks with their joined forces. But when their union was dissolved, they were soon conquered by the Russians, Turks, and others. Their country was very nice, beautiful, and charming. The population's main asset was sheep, although they also had cattle, horses, and chickens. The Circassians lived in rural areas and freely, but they had a special leader. Both the Circassians and the Georgians were considered the world's most beautiful people. They were hospitable and were good riders. Thieving was not considered a crime and was very rarely strictly punished. They were not inclined to hard drinking.26
23 See: Ibid., pp. 736-737.
24 See: Ibid., pp.739—740.
25 See: N. Witsen, op. cit., pp. 685, 688.
26 See: Ibid., p. 879.
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In his book, Nicolaas Witsen noted that the town of Baku was the town of Shirvan. He wrote that this city was located on the Caspian Sea and belonged to Persia. It had reserves of black and white oil. It prospered from two hot springs and its rich soil, which provided the Persian Shah with significant profit. He often pointed out in his book that Shirvan was the main crossroads for merchants from Russia, Persia, India, Georgia, etc. Jan Struys also wrote about Baku and its surroundings. He noted that the soil from this town to the Bay of Gilan was sandy and all along the coast were many fine rivers, arbors, and ducts; some of them were so deep that large ships could enter and anchor there. The sea was rich in fish, and the Shah of Persia received immense profit from fishing.
Jan Struys also wrote about oil and said it came out of the mountain of Barmach, near the city of Baku, gushing from the ground and running through the rocks. Here were about forty wells from which oil could be drawn, but there were only three main oil sources in full swing. After describing the route from Derbent to Shirvan, he described the ancient town. In the olden days, the city was much stronger, but declined during the war waged by Shah Abas against the Turks. In the city, the streets were very narrow, both in the south and in the north. The houses were low and built of earth, clay, boards, and planks.
He noted that there were often earthquakes and the earthquake in 1667 was the strongest from time immemorial. It continued for three months and during this terrible destruction undoubtedly more than 80 thousand men died who are capable of bearing arms, not counting women, children, and slaves. This disaster struck not only Shemakha, but also its surroundings.27 It should be noted that Jan Struys saw the results of the devastating earthquake in Shemakha for himself a few years after it happened.
Olfert Dapper, Jan Struys, and Nicolaas Witsen also briefly described the Alans, Avars, Kumyks, and others in the above-mentioned publications. But here we will go on to give a brief review of the description of some of the Caucasian peoples and countries that the following authors present in their publications.
Dutch Scholars and Travelers about Some Economic Aspects of the Life of
the Caucasian Peoples
At the beginning of this article, we mentioned that the main interest of the Dutch scholars and travelers in the Caucasus in general and Georgia in particular was to collect and analyze information about the economic situation there.
Of the Dutch scholars and travelers, only Olfert Dapper gives a description and comparison of several routes connecting Europe to Georgia. He described the three main access routes to Georgia:
1. The shortest was through Constantinople; caravans took this route overland from Eastern Europe to Constantinople, then across the Bosporus and through Trabzon to Georgia, either overland or through the Black Sea. This route was easier and shorter, and the trip took from five to eight days;
2. Through Persia; caravans took this route from Persia directly to Kartli (East Georgia);
3. From Poland via the Black Sea; according to Olfert Dapper, this route was easier and shorter.
It is remarkable that Olfert Dapper did not consider the route from Europe through Russia to Georgia important, although at that time, European scholars and travelers mainly went to Georgia
See: J. Struys, op. cit.
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from Russia. At that time, most people traveled from Russia to Georgia via the Volga and Caspian Sea and then overland to Georgia.28
At that time, i.e. in the 17th century, the Caucasus was under the control of Turkey (western part) and Persia (eastern part). Accordingly, western Georgia was under the control of Turkey, and eastern Georgia was under Persian control. Therefore, penetrating the Caucasian market, or exploring the trade route via the Caucasus without the consent of Turkey and Iran was naturally impossible. At that time, Turkey and Persia were in opposition to each other, both politically and economically. Also there were additional difficulties posed by the fact that Georgia, the central country in the Caucasus, was divided into several tiny principalities. All of this was complicated by European merchants starting operations in this region.
Therefore, according to Olfert Dapper, trade with the Georgian provinces on the Black Sea coast, and particularly with Samegrelo, was mainly carried out by Turkish merchants. They sold carpets, bed linen, chairs, bows and arrows, canvas, iron, copper, wool, salt, cotton clothing, etc. In exchange, they received honey, rice, yarn, bovine teeth, hides, beaver furs, slaves, palm tree timber, etc. The Turkish merchants greatly benefited from trade in palm tree timber: they exchanged four hundred gold krone-worth of salt for five thousand gold krone-worth of palm tree timber. Since, according to Olfert Dapper, the Turkish merchants mainly traded with the Georgian provinces on the coast of the Black Sea, and particularly with Samegrelo, this indicated that the Turks had monopolized trade in the Black Sea and that the Europeans needed to exert immense efforts to penetrate into western Georgia.29
Olfert Dapper wrote that Georgia produced a lot of silk. There were multitudes of mulberry trees that provided food for silk worms. Therefore, Georgia sold a lot of silk to Persia. Olfert Dapper also indicated that Samegrelo and Imereti (western Georgia) were rich in gold, silver, iron and antimony. The governor of Samegrelo and King of Imereti operated mines. The governor of Samegrelo sent samples of gold and silver to Constantinople unbeknown to the Turks to trade in the future.30
Like Olfert Dapper, Nicolaas Witsen also described the state of trade in Georgia and noted that the capital city, Tbilisi, which was large and well built, was known for its silk merchants and brisk silk trade. Merchants transported a large amount of Georgian wine from Tbilisi to Armenia, Media, and Isfahan for consumption of the king. A cart of wine weighing 300 pounds31 cost only eight Guilders,32 which was the price of the best wine, while ordinary wine cost half the price of the best wine. All other food cost approximately the same price as this wine. Georgia produced a large amount of silk, but no more than half the amount the travelers wrote about. The people of this country did not treat their silk very well. They exported it to Erzurum in Turkey and the surrounding countryside where merchants mostly engaged in lead trade. Then Nicolaas Witsen recalled the words of Jean Chardin and noted that the Georgian customs and traditions were a mixture of the customs and traditions of most of the peoples who lived around them. According to Jean Chardin (and also Nicolaas Witsen), this was due to the trade they carried on with many nations and to the freedom to live according to their customs, abandoning them or protecting them, which everyone was used to in Georgia.33
Nicolaas Witsen was also interested in searching for minerals throughout the world: in Russia, Greenland, Norway, Sumatra, America, as well as in the Caucasus in general and in Georgia in particular. As researcher of Nicolaas Witsen's activity Mrs. Marion Peters wrote in her book The Wise
8 See: O. Dapper, op. cit., p. 698.
9 See: Ibid., p. 717.
0 See: Ibid., pp. 696, 716.
1 The traditional Dutch pounds weighed about 480 grams.
2 The Dutch guilder was the currency of the Netherlands from the 17th century until 2002, when it was replaced by the
3 See: N. Witsen, op. cit., pp. 627, 673, 674.
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Merchant (De wijze koopman in Dutch), Nicolaas Witsen did not give information in his book about finding a large copper deposit in Georgia. Nicolaas Witsen wrote about this information in his letter on 1 June, 1716 to his friend Gijsbert Cupper.34 He was also interested in Baku's naphtha sources and in the asphalt layers of the Caspian Sea,35 etc.
The opinions of Jan Struys about trade in the Caucasus and via the Caucasus from Europe to Asia are very interesting. In his above-mentioned book, he wrote: after being liberated from slavery, he planned to start trading and went to the Caspian Sea with a Dutch merchant. He talked to some Armenian silk merchants about trading activities in the future. They gave recommendations about which goods would be beneficial to export from the Netherlands to the Caucasus and Persia, as well as other countries of Asia. According to these merchants, tin, zinc, mercury, satin cloth, and other Dutch goods and products could be imported from Holland, which could be transported through the Caspian Sea and sold profitably in Derbent, Shemakha, and Ardabil. They thought that all the silk trade should be conducted in the Netherlands and that it would also be much better and more convenient to ship products to the Netherlands via the Caspian Sea, through the Volga to Arkhangelsk. They thought that it would be much cheaper and safer than a long journey entailing a large and expensive convoy or security, first overland to Smyrna (now Izmir), where the Turks demanded huge customs taxes, and then through the Mediterranean Sea suffering the losses caused by Berber robbers. They hoped that the Russian czar would demand less customs duty in order to develop and direct this profitable trade in his country. According to these merchants from Gilan, Shirvan, and other localities in the coastal areas, more than 30 thousand bales of silk could be exported every year. Moreover, the eastern shores of the Caspian Sea produced lovely chagrin skin, rhubarb, oil, saffron, salt, and many other goods.36
In addition, Jan Struys noted that merchants used to come from Europe and Asia, particularly from India, Persia, Holland, England, France, Italy, Russia, the Northern Caucasus, and Central Asia, etc. to the towns of Shemakha, Baku, Gilan, Ardebil, Tbilisi, and Isfahan for trading purposes. Furthermore, there was intense trade between the Caucasian and Iranian merchant of these cities.37 As we can see, in the 17th century, the Caucasus still had quite a large trade potential, while local and foreign merchants carried out intensified trade through their market towns. At that time, there was still a new trade route from the Caucasus to the Caspian Sea, the Volga, and then overland to Archangelsk, and finally by sea to Europe, so merchants were able to utilize this road. This road was less dangerous, less time was needed, and it was cheaper than the old road through Turkey and the Mediterranean Sea, or from Persia through the Indian and then the Atlantic Ocean to bypass Africa. At that time, there was stiff competition on the merchants' sea routes among Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch merchants. The tough competition on the trade routes forced European merchants to seek new markets and trade routes. As mentioned above, the routes through Turkey and the Mediterranean Sea were very expensive and dangerous. As for the new trade route through Russia, from the beginning there was stiff competition with British merchants and especially with Armenian merchants, who had been granted special privileges by the Russian czar.
This was why the European business circles began looking for a new trade route through the Caucasus and through Shirvan and Georgia in particular, then through Black Sea to Poland. Therefore, the European scholars and travelers began intensively studying the Caucasian countries. However, for various reasons, this goal did not materialize. The main reason was the political situation in the Caucasus. Persia controlled the eastern part of the Caucasus. Georgia was divided into small states and principalities; eastern Georgia was under the control of Persia, while western Georgia was under
34 See: M. Greshoff, Nicolaas Witsen als maecenas, Uitgeverij H.D.Tjeenk&Zoon, Haarlem, 1909, p. 21.
35 See: M. Peters, De wijze koopman, Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2010, p. 139.
36 See: J. Struys, op. cit.
37 See: Ibid., pp. 340, 363-364; The Voyage of Jean Chardin in Persia and other Eastern Countries (information about Georgia), pp. 322, 325.
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the control of Turkey. After describing Georgia's problems, Olfert Dapper offered the Georgians a way to resolve the main problem of restoring the country's national unity: if they united their country and appointed a decent government, their problems would melt like snow in the sun.38
Unfortunately, Olfert Dapper's advice to the Georgians remained only advice, and the political situation not only in Georgia, but in the whole of the Caucasus did not improve. On the contrary, the situation became even more complicated in the next century, because its northern neighbor, Russia, became involved in the fight to redivide the Caucasus. So the restoration of the trade road from Europe to Asia through the region and the international involvement of this region in intense trade were postponed to the distant future. It should be noted that in the 17th century the activity of the European scholars and travelers, and of the Dutch scholars and travelers in particular, in the Caucasus did not achieve economic results (the conquest of the economic markets of the Caucasian countries and the restoration of ancient silk route from Europe to Asia through the Caucasus), but their activities were very useful from both the social and cultural viewpoint. It is known that these works of Dutch scholars and travelers were translated into many European languages, and these publications helped to better acquaint Europeans with the Caucasus and Caucasians, as well as with their history, culture, and political situation, etc. Also their publications contain a lot of interesting information about the Caucasus and Caucasian people. Their works have not yet been fully investigated and will help to shed light on the history of the Caucasian nations.
About the Sources of Works of Dutch Scientists and Travelers
It is very interesting to see what sources Olfert Dapper, Jan Struys, and Nicolaas Witsen used in their works to describe the Caucasian region, the countries located in the region, and their people, history, culture, political and economic situation, etc.
It should be noted that Olfert Dapper never traveled to the exotic destinations he wrote about in his books.39 Olfert Dapper used more works of ancient Greeks, Latin, as well as Armenian, British, Dutch, German, Italian (also works of the Catholic missionaries), French, Portuguese, Spanish, and other historians, and the works of Catholic missionaries, in the Caucasian part of his book. He obtained material from his colleagues Isaac Vossius and Samuel Blommaert, who often traveled around the world. Olfert Dapper used ancient Greek and Roman sources to describe the geographic area and origin of the Caucasian countries, as well as late mediaeval and modern research works to describe the political and economic situation. From the ancient Greek sources, Olfert Dapper used the works of Aristotle, Arrian of Nicomedia, Claudius Ptolemaeus, Elianus Claudius, Herodotus, Plutarch, and Strabo. From among the ancient Roman authors, Olfert Dapper used the works of Gaius Plinius Se-cundus, Jordanes, also written Jordanis, and Procopius of Caesarea. The author also used the works of Armenian geographer Anania Shirakatsi. He used the work of British Geoffrey of Monmouth. From the Dutch scholars and travelers, he used the works of Cluver Philipp, Johan van Kootwijk, Zwart, also he received information from Isaac Vossius and Samuel Blommaert. From German authors he used the works of Georgius Agricola and Adam Olearius. He also used the works of French orientalist De A. Theuet. It is interesting that Olfert Dapper used not only Italian traveler (Pietro della Valle, Soranzo Lazaro, Georg Interiano, Paolo Giovio etc.), but also Italian missionary writings (Arcangelo Lamberti and others). They lived a long time in the Caucasus, mostly in Georgia in particular. He also
' See: O. Dapper, op. cit., p. 703.
' [http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfert_Dapper].
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referred to the works of Portuguese merchant Pedro Teixeira, Spanish Cristobal Suarez de Figueroa, and others.
The above-mentioned publication of Olfert Dapper was an important source for Nicolaas Wit-sen's work Noord en Oost Tartarye. In addition to the above-mentioned sources, Nicolaas Witsen also used other sources for the Caucasian part (including Georgian part) of his book, namely, works by French scholar Jean Chardin, as well as works by Robbe Jacques, Nicolas Sanson, and Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, often quoted by Nicolaas Witsen and Jean Chardin. He also used the works of Flemish scholars: Andreas Masius, Abraham Ortelius, and William of Rubruck, Portuguese Antoine de Gouveia, Englishman Sir Paul Rycaut, Arab Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham, and an Italian merchant traveler Marco Polo.
Researchers still doubt whether he had ever been to the Caucasus. Nicolaas Witsen's biographer, Johan Fredrik Gebhard, claims in his book The Life of Mr. Cornelisz Nicolaas40 that Nicolaas Witsen was never in Russia or the regions of the country a second time. Nicolaas Witsen was only in Russia in 1664—1665. However, he also presents an extract from a book by Jacobus Scheltema (Russia and the Netherlands), 41 where he notes that Nicolaas Witsen stayed in Russia during his first trip until 1667 (and not until 1665, as Johan Fredrik Gebhard wrote). The first time he traveled to the eastern and northern provinces of Russia and then to the Caspian Sea. In the above-mentioned book, Johan Fredrik Gebhard gives another opinion: namely, according to Johannes Bodel Nijenhuis, Nicolaas Witsen traveled for the second time to Russia in 1667. By the way, Jacobus Scheltema thought that the long and "frequent" travels of Nicolaas Witsen to Russia and to the East were quite natural, because Nicolaas Witsen's family was engaged in lively trade with Russia and Persia throughout most of the 17th century. In addition, Nicolaas Witsen's brother Cornelius was busy in active trade in Persia, and he was also the first consul in Aleppo. Besides the family relations between the brothers, they also had close business ties. In addition to the trade in Persia, Cornelius Witsen had trading relations with other countries in the East. As a result, it was possible that the brothers frequently traveled to Russia and the Eastern countries. However, the considerations of Jacobus Scheltema and Bodel Nijenhuis about a long and "frequent" travels are not shared by Johan Fredrik Gebhard. Because, according to Johan Fredrik Gebhard, Jacobus Scheltema and Bodel Nijenhuis did not give any specific arguments to confirm their opinions in their works, they only gave private considerations. Johan Fredrik Gebhard noted that Nicolaas Witsen acquired a lot of information about Russia and other regions from his many correspondents.
Also Georgian writer M. Kekelidze wrote in his book Seekers of Bright Stars42 that Nicolaas Witsen had been in Georgia in 1661, on his return from Persia to Russia via Georgia. He stayed in Tbilisi for two weeks. Also Ossetian historians M. Isaev and V. Abaev noted in their work Some Problems of the Old History of Ossetia43 that Nicolaas Witsen traveled at the end of the 17th century in the Caucasus. In addition, a scientist from Israel, Irena Vladimirsky, wrote in her work General Overview. Countries: Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan44 that Nicolaas Witsen traveled in the Caucasus in 1690. Indeed, Georgian historian and ethnographer J. Wateishvili wrote in his fundamental work Georgia and European Countries45 that Olfert Dapper had been in Georgia. As we can see, the reality about the travels of the Dutch scholars in 17th-18th centuries in the Caucasus and Georgia is still controversial. To confirm the impressions gained from his journey, Jan Struys often referred to
40 See: J.F. Gebhard, Het levenMr. Nicolaas Cornelisz Witsen (1641-1717), Utrecht, 1881, pp. 43-45.
41 See: J. Scheltema, Rusland en de Nederlanden, Amsterdam, 1817, I deel, p. 76; II deel, pp. 67-68.
42 See: M. Kekelidze, Seekers of Bright Stars, Tbilisi, 1962, pp. 261-266 (in Georgian).
43 See: M. Isaev, V. Abaev. "Some of the Problems of the Old History of Ossetia," available at [http://kvkz.ru/history].
44 See: I. Vladimirsky, "General Overview. Countries: Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan," available at [http://www. achva.ac.il/].
45 See: J. Wateishvili, Georgia and European Countries. Essays on the History Interrelation. 12th-19th Centuries, Vol. I, Book 2, Moscow, 2003, p. 341 (in Russian).
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the work of Adam Olearius. The positive aspect of his work is that he himself traveled to the Caucasus and the Caspian countries in particular.
Conclusion
So, as we can see, Dutch economic development in the Golden Age (the 17th century), the intense competition of the world sea-trade routes, and the unsuccessful attempt to explore the sea route from Europe to Southeast Asia via the Arctic Ocean contributed to the interest of Dutch scholars in researching the possibility of restoring the oldest trade-transit route through the Caucasus in general and Georgia in particular. This required physical and geographical research of this region, as well as of the history, culture, and economic and political situation. Olfert Dapper, Nicolaas Witsen, and Jan Struys did much to promote this. Their publications contain a lot of interesting information about the Caucasus and Caucasian people in general and about Georgia and the Georgians in particular.
Despite the attempts by Europeans researchers, including Dutch scholars and travelers, it has been impossible to restore the ancient trade route from Europe to Asia through the Caucasus. The confrontation between Turkey and Persia aimed at conquering the countries of this region thwarted this endeavor. In addition, the Caucasian states, including Georgia, were fragmented into small kingdoms and principalities and were economically and politically too weak. Later, Russia was also involved in this battle between Turkey and Persia, so this goal had to be postponed until the distant future.
Another important goal of the European, including Dutch, scholars and travelers was to investigate and then exploit the Caucasian countries' market-trade potential (especially regarding silk). However, this goal was not fully implemented, although local Armenian, Azeri, and Georgian merchants made the effort to ensure that Caucasian silk still reached the European market. With the help of their activity and trade links, Baku, Tbilisi, and Shemakha became important trading cities, which also attracted foreign merchants. Thus, despite the political difficulties in the region, in the 17th century, the Caucasian countries tried to participate in international trade.
The works of Dutch scholars and travelers have not yet been fully investigated. The continuation and expansion of this research will help to shed more light on the history of the Caucasus in general and Georgia in particular, as well as on the history of the relations between the Caucasian countries and the Netherlands.
