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Вестн. Моск. ун-та. Сер. 19. Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация. 2016. № 1
СРАВНИТЕЛЬНОЕ ИЗУЧЕНИЕ КУЛЬТУР
К.С. Романов
«СОСЕДИ ЧЕРЕЗ СЕВЕРНЫЙ ПОЛЮС».
К ВОПРОСУ О РОССИЙСКО-КАНАДСКИХ
ОТНОШЕНИЯХ
Несмотря на сравнительную короткую историю официальных дипломатических отношений, установленных между Канадой и Россией, интерес к Канаде в России возник более двухсот лет назад. В статье рассматриваются основные вехи становления отношений между двумя странами, а также показаны перспективы их развития.
Ключевые слова: российско-канадские отношения, иммиграция, СССР, «холодная война».
Despite a relatively short history of diplomatic relations between the two countries, Canada drew attention of the Russian intellectuals more than 200 years ago. The article analyzes the forming of the relations between Russia and Canada, as well as its present state.
Key words: Russo-Canadian relations, immigration, USSR, Cold War.
Russo-Canadian relations for a long time were at the periphery of both countries' diplomacy. Eventually, large territories on the other side of the Atlantic ruled by the British Empire drew the attention of Russian scholars and the government. Similar geographic position, large spaces, ethnic diversity and indigenous populations gave food for all sorts of comparisons. Within two centuries this interest has developed into the economic partnership and complex political relations.
Early Relations. The first known direct references to Canada appeared in the writings of the famous Russian historian Nikolay Karam-zin in the early 1800s1. Karamzin's perspective on Canada included comparison with the United States. A devoted monarchist, he complimented the order, conservative traditions and respect for monarchy of Canada and contrasted it with the anarchy and greed that at that time were commonly associated with the young American republic. As the
Романов Константин Сергеевич — канд. культурологии, доцент кафедры сравнительного изучения национальных литератур и культур факультета иностранных языков и регионоведения МГУ имени М.В. Ломоносова. E-mail: kromanov@ rocketmail.com
1 Карамзин Н.М. Общества в Америке // Вестник Европы. 1802. № 24.
United States had won its freedoms and independence by the means of violent Revolution, he claimed, violence would remain part of its heritage. Canada, governed by the British monarch, served as a good example of a more stable society. He noted sharp division between wealth and poverty in the US and more even distribution of means in Canada. Besides, he drew parallels between Canada and Russia, comparing their size and climate. His view on Russia included an idea that due to its large size only autocracy was a suitable form of government. In this respect, Canada could fit into an image of an enlightened "European" country based on monarchy and traditional values.
A decade later, when both Russia and Great Britain were struggling with Napoleonic France, Canada drew the attention of Russia's officials as one of the strategic strongholds of Britain. Russian ministers and statesmen expressed concern about the possible annexation of Canada by the USA, which would lower Britain's potential against Napoleon. America's declaration of war against Britain was issued on June, 18th 1812, just six days before Napoleon's invasion to Russia. For some Russian intellectuals the likelihood of the two collisions being connected seemed strong, although the general public remained ignorant. As the War of 1812 in North America did not undermine Britain's war effort in Europe, Russia's interest waned.
The Rebellions of 1837—1838 in Upper Canada and Lower Canada drew strong attention in Russia. In Britain and America rumors of the Russian intrigue in Canadian affairs were widely discussed. Contemporary international conditions, especially the Russo-Turkish war of 1828— 1829, kept Russia and Great Britain in a state of mutual hostility and suspicion. That meant that any lack of stability in Britain's colonies in North America could be used for Russia's benefit. Several sources, including journalists and foreign diplomats, claimed that Russia sponsored the uprisings of 1838 in Canada through a developed net of its agents. Although there were no evidences of Russia's involvement, the hearsay was so strong that it even led some Canadian rebels to believe that Russian help was coming.
On the other hand, Tsar Nicolas I and Russia's establishment foresaw a possible threat from revolution in any western country as they assumed that social instability and anti-establishment movements in Europe and America could spread to the Russian society and be harmful to monarchy and serfdom. Some leading Russian magazines such as "Syn Otechestva" or "Moskovskii Vedomosti" followed news in Canada, especially after Lord Durham was sent to Canada as Governor General. Russian media praised his "decisive measures" against the "rebels".
Strategic partnership between Russia and British North America developed in the 1830s when the Russian-American Company, a fur trading venture in Russian America, established close relations with the Hudson's Bay Company which then controlled large territories in the west of Canada. The Russian business elite was concerned with the growing influence of the USA in the region. In 1839 the Hudson's Bay Company became the provisioner of food and other supplies to Russian settlers in New Archangel, Alaska. George Simpson, the governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, visited New Archangel regularly and even made a remarkable journey from Alaska to St. Petersbourg by sled and carriage in 1841-1842.
In the 1850s Russia continued to develop interest in American matters and in 1857 a young Russian scholar Alexandr B. Lakier made a voyage to the United States, Canada, and Cuba. The book he published was devoted mainly to the description of the United States, but he dedicated one chapter to Canada, where he described trade, politics, the legal system and French-English relations2. The book received a lot of attention in Russia as it presented an interesting view on the American democratic systems at a time when Russia was moving towards its own reforms of the 1860s.
Russian Immigrants in Canada. Historically immigrants from Eastern Europe played a great role in Canada's history. According to the 2011 National Household Survey 550,520 contemporary Canadians claimed Russian ancestry3. Historically the first Russian immigrants to Canada were some Russian explorers of Alaska who came as early as the late 16th century. But the first substantial number of immigrants from Russia came to Canada in the early 20th century. A deeply entrenched stereotype was that most of the emigrants from Russia had chosen to leave their country because of political or religious oppression. It was true for some groups, such as the Doukhobors who came to Canada in 1899. But in most cases, economic factors played the major role in pre-World War I immigration.
A large proportion of immigrants came from today's Belarus and Ukraine. Until recently Canadian records classified these people as "Russians", as they were coming from the Russian Empire. In fact, the ethnic composition of the newcomers was complex and included Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles etc. According to statistics, the proportion of Poles and Ukrainians among the immigrants was especially
2 См.: Лакиер А.Б. Путешествие по Североамериканским Штатам, Канаде и острову Кубе. М., 1859.
3 Statistics Canada: Ethnic Diversity and Immigration (дата обращения: 23.10.2015).
high4. The matter was further complicated by the fact that a lot of Ukrainians, Jews and Poles were also coming to Canada from Austro-Hungary — which at that time owned large territories with predominantly Slavic population.
Economic growth and westward expansion permitted Canada to accept large numbers of these people and provide them with land and work in its newly-added provinces — Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia. The climate of Canada's prairies was comparable to that of the Russian and Ukrainian "steppe" which simplified adapting to the new country. Russian, Ukrainian, Belarussian and other Slavic languages and cultures were thus introduced to Canada's mosaic.
The Russian immigration to Canada in 1917—1939 is often called "white" as it was comprised of people who were monarchist or supported the White movement and came to Canada after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. This group included "White Guard" members, persons of the Tsarist aristocracy, civil servants and intellectuals who could not fit into the USSR socialist system. Some Russian Old Believers and other religious sect members had found refuge in Canada as the Bolsheviks did not permit any religious practices to Soviet citizens. As the Communist party consolidated power in Russia and established the Soviet Union, there was a growth of political mistrust in Canada of Russian immigrants. Canada's officials were afraid of their possible influence on workers movements in Canada and socialism was for a long time associated with Russia. Some Russian "white" immigrants experienced social and economic hardships and joined the unskilled labor force. Most of them found employment in farming or railroad construction.
The post-World War II immigration from Russia comprised a new wave of "white" immigrants — those who left Russia after the Revolution and stayed in other countries in Europe, the Middle East and China before they decided to move to Canada. However, most of post-World War II immigrants classified as Russians were the so-called Displaced Persons, or simply DPs5. After World War II there were a lot of such people in Europe, and many of them chose to come to Canada as the country started to build the image of a "Peaceable Kingdom".
Starting in the late 50s, when the Iron Curtain divided the world, the number of Russian immigrants dropped. The new phenomenon in Russian immigration to Canada was the arrival of the so-called Dissidents. Dissidents were in conflict with the Soviet Government and had to leave the country for ideological reasons. It was a rather small category but
4 Kukushkin V. From Peasants to Labourers: Ukrainian and Belarusan Immigrants from the Russian Empire to Canada. Montreal, 2007.
5 The term "Displaced Person" describes someone who had to move from his or her original place because of the war.
very influential: in most cases, Russian dissidents were either scientists or intellectuals. Some of them were anti-communists; others remained communists but disagreed with the Communist party of the Soviet Union. In the 1970s the Soviet Union started to issue "emigrant visas", special permissions to leave the country. Most visas were granted to Jews who decided to live in Israel. Some people who left the USSR on Jewish visas eventually came to live in Canada. Until the end of the 1970s around 5,000 people had left the USSR for Canada on emigrant visas. These people comprised the so-called "third wave" of Russian immigrants.
Adaptation in Canada was not easy. Even highly qualified professionals had to struggle to win a position in the new society. Most professionals, such as doctors, engineers, administrators, teachers etc., had to obtain a license confirming their qualifications. Often it meant starting a career from the bottom. A deep knowledge of the English or French languages was required for most professional positions, so most immigrants did not meet linguistic standards. Musicians were the single category who adapted fairly well. For example, in the 1970s and 80s immigrants from the USSR made up to 10% of the Toronto Symphony Orchestra.
Because of the ethnic and social diversity of immigrants from Russia (or the USSR), and the lack of organized Russian settlements (with the exception of the Doukhobors), they did not produce abundant cultural activity. In most cases, community life was concentrated around churches. Clubs and organizations were small and most of them did not stay longer than a few years. Attachment to traditions, language and faith was usually strong among the first generation of immigrants. The second and third generations usually fully adapted the general Canadian lifestyle and lost interest and connections to their language and roots.
Canada-USSR relations. The political and economic relations between the two countries in the most part of the 20th century were far from being easy. Canada and the Soviet Union were members of opposing military alliances and represented conflicting political ideologies. Canada's society was based on democratic principles that favored the free market and private enterprise, whereas the Soviet Union adopted the socialist model and common ownership. At the beginning of the communist era, the Soviet political leaders announced their aim to spread communism internationally. Canadian forces fought against the Bolsheviks in Archangel and in Siberia in 1918-1919 as a part of Allied intervention that backed the White forces. In the 1920s Canadians feared the spread of communism and the relations between the two countries were sparse. The Soviet Union supported the Canadian Communist Party (CPC), founded in 1921, which remained rather influential until the 1950s. Despite the growing mutual enmity of ruling elites, the two countries established a mutually beneficial trade partnership.
In 1942, a year after the Nazi invasion into the Soviet Union, the USSR and Canada set up official diplomatic relations. By 1944 the "Aid to Russia" campaign raised money from Canadians in support of the Soviet fight against Nazi Germany and the image of the Soviet Union in the Canadian press became more positive. Generally positive relations were darkened by the controversy over Ukrainian nationalism. The Ukrainian Canadian Committee (UCC) that unified Canadians of Ukrainian origin was demanding from the government to take actions for the establishment of an independent Ukrainian state after the war. These calls caused angry reaction from Soviet officials.
The commencement of the Cold War and the Gouzenko affair (the first spy scandal that happened in 1945) aggravated relations between the two countries. The Soviet press accused Prime Minister Mackenzie King's government of stirring up anti-Soviet sentiments in the country and subservience to British and American policies. Canada's journalists blamed the Soviets for their policy in Eastern Europe, promotion of world revolution and expansionism. Soviet press responded with massive anti-west propaganda6. The relations between the countries remained cold until Stalin's death in 1953.
The break-through came in 1955 when Lester B. Pearson, then Canada's secretary of state for external affairs, visited the Soviet Union. This visit started a new era of cultural, agricultural and trade exchanges. The major trade achievement of the late 1950s was the signing of an agreement with the Soviet Union for the exporting of Canada's grain. Later in the 1960s and 70s the Soviet Union made several large wheat and grain purchases. Besides, Canada's renowned pianist Glenn Gould toured the Soviet Union and Soviet scientists and academics visited universities in Toronto and Montreal in 1957. Among the other exchanges we should mention the Soviet State Symphony Orchestra visit in 1960, the Bolshoi Ballet visiting in 1963, and the Soviet National Circus in 1963 and 1964.
During the Brezhnev era Canada was seen by Soviet officials as a military and political opponent, but at the same time as an economic partner and cultural neighbor. The 1960s relations were clouded by several spy scandals; nevertheless, the countries signed new trade contracts and stage a number of official visits. Besides, 6000 Soviet citizens came to Canada during Expo-67 in Montreal.
Prime Minister Pierre E. Trudeau's visit to the USSR in 1971 opened a new page of bilateral relations. Trudeau tried to diversify his country's foreign policy. He was the first Western leader to establish diplomatic re-
6 См.: Мамедова А.О. Символы войны и мира в советском политическом плакате и карикатуре периода «холодной войны» // Вестн. Моск. ун-та. Сер. 19. Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация. 2013. № 1. С. 110—115.
lations with communist China, and was known for his personal friendship with Cuban leader Fidel Castro. His attempts to reduce the US influence on Canada in the energy and military spheres were favored by the Soviet press.
Journalists and scholars called the following years of Canada-Soviet relations Détente, as they were characterized by developing co-operation in the economic sphere7. The growing interest of Canada in the Soviet Union led to the opening of a Canada Division at the Institute of the USA of the Soviet Academy of Science in 1973. The Afghan War that started in 1979 cooled the relations. Canada joined the boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, limited trade and imposed economic sanctions. The situation was relieved after Mikhail Gorbachev visited Canada in 1983. In his main speech he argued for better relations between "neighbors across the Pole". A new series of trade agreements between the two countries were signed when M. Gorbachev took the supreme power in the USSR and launched political and economic reforms known as Perestroika. Perestroika was marked by a series of exchanges, including a joint trans-Polar ski trek and the first opening of McDonalds in Moscow. As the new Soviet policy permitted the introduction of private property, some Canadian business ventures started to open branches in the USSR.
Into the 21st Century. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 a significant number of Russians chose to live in Canada. Unlike the early 20th century, when peasants and unskilled labor immigrants from Russia made the major part of immigrants from the Russian Empire, the late 20th — early 21st century immigrants from Russia are well educated skilled professionals. Such professions as doctors, scientists and computer specialists make up a significant number of today's Russian immigrants. Although the percentage of Russians in the modern immigration influx is relatively small, the total numbers remain quite high. According to statistics, between 2001 and 2006 the number of mother-tongue Russian immigrants was 38,505. Most of them, like other immigrants, settled in large Canadian cities such as Toronto, Montreal or Vancouver. Some Russians and Russian descendants achieve much success in various fields including politics. The most prominent Canadians of Russian origin are the noted diplomat George Ignatieff, his son an academic and leading politician Michael Grant Ignatieff and a Member of Parliament Alex T. Atamanenko.
The Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia unites several parishes in Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia. Orthodox
7 Black J.L. Nearly Neighbours: Canada and the Soviet Union from Cold War to Detente and Beyond. Kingston, 1989.
Churches still play essential roles in both religious and the community life of Russian immigrants. For example, the Protection of the Holy Virgin Memorial Church, built in Ottawa in 1988, runs a summer camp for children and hosts an Annual Taste of Russia Festival8.
As a country with rich history and culture, Russia draws the attention of Canadian academia. Russian language and Russian Studies programs and related disciplines are run by many Canadian universities. For example, the Munk School of Global Affairs of the University of Toronto runs the Centre for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies. The Russian Language Program is run by the Department of Central, Eastern and Northern European Studies of the University of British Columbia. Similar programs are offered by McGill University in Montreal, Université Laval in Quebec City, and Ottawa and Carleton universities in Ottawa. Education in Russian is possible for some kids who live in or close to Russian-speaking communities. For instance, the Twin Rivers Elementary School in Castlegar, BC, located close to traditional Russian Douk-hobor community, provides a Russian Bilingual Program. That means that kids can learn Russian from Grade 1 to Grade 7 and study other school subjects in both English and Russian.
Political and economic relations between Russia and Canada remain complex. In 2012 the two countries celebrated 70 years of diplomatic relations and 2015 marked the anniversary of 100 years of trade relations. Until recently international trade between Canada and Russia had been intensifying, reflecting Russia's emergence as a major global economy in the early 2000s. Developing partnership in the Arctic region is an important goal for developing bilateral relations.
Due to the contrary position on the crisis in Ukraine in 2014, the relations between the countries seriously cooled. In March 2014 Canada (as well as other EU countries, Japan and the USA) introduced a series of economic sanctions against Russia, regarding military matters, natural resource production, space and investment. Besides, Canada recalled its ambassador to Moscow and banned several Russian citizens from entry to Canada. Russia responded with the embargo on agricultural imports and banned 13 Canadian officials from entry to Russia. Experts called 2014 the coolest year in bilateral relations between Canada and Russia since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
In the 19th century, Canada attracted the attention of Russian officials as a trump-card of the British Empire. Russian historians, such as Nikolay Karamzin and Alexandr B. Lakier introduced Canada to Russian audience. They gave credit to its well-structured system of govern-
8 Russian Canadian Cultural Heritage Foundation. URL: http://rcchf.ca (дата обращения: 23.10.2015).
ment and noticed significant political and social differences between the USA and Canada. A Strong economy and wide business opportunities attracted many Russians and other ethnicities of the Russian Empire to immigrate to Canada in the early 20st century. After the Revolution of 1917 relations between the two countries became complicated: different ideologies and social structures alienated them. Nevertheless, economic interests helped to mitigate contradictions. Cultural exchanges played a significant role in building bridges between the two countries. In the post-Soviet era economic ties became stronger, yet many differences between the "neighbors across the poles" remain strong. An important part of the "Anglo" world, it draws attention of the Russian academia9.
Список литературы
Карамзин Н.М. Общества в Америке // Вестник Европы. 1802. № 24. Лакиер А.Б. Путешествие по Североамериканским Штатам, Канаде и
острову Кубе. М., 1859. Мамедова А. О. Символы войны и мира в советском политическом плакате и карикатуре периода «холодной войны» // Вестн. Моск. ун-та. Сер. 19. Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация. 2013. № 1. С. 110-115.
Назаренко А.Л. Модель лекционного курса по страноведению в формате смешанного обучения // Вестн. Моск. ун-та. Сер. 19. Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация. 2014. № 4. С. 149-154. Kukushkin V. From Peasants to Labourers: Ukrainian and Belarusan
Immigrants from the Russian Empire to Canada. Montreal, 2007. Statistics Canada: Ethnic Diversity and Immigration. URL: http://www12.
statcan.gc.ca (дата обращения: 23.10.2015). Black J.L. Nearly Neighbours: Canada and the Soviet Union from Cold War
to Detente and Beyond. Kingston, 1989. Russian Canadian Cultural Heritage Foundation. URL: http://rcchf.ca (дата обращения: 23.10.2015).
9 См.: Назаренко А.Л. Модель лекционного курса по страноведению в формате смешанного обучения // Вестн. Моск. ун-та. Сер. 19. Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация. 2014. № 4. С. 149-154.
