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Вестн. Моск. ун-та. Сер. 19. Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация. 2017. № 2
Julia B. Kuzmenkova, Maria A. Erykina
SONGS AND DRAMA INTEGRATED IN EFL LEARNING
National Research University Higher School of Economics, 101000, Russia, Moscow, Myasnitskaya ul., 20
At present there is a growing concern among language teachers about developing non-traditional approaches to bridge the gap between classroom settings and real life situations. The article is intended to reveal the rich potential of musical performances based on the use of educational drama and songs in EFL teaching. The ever-increasing amount of research articles in various fields ranging from cognitive science and psy-cholinguistics to anthropology and sociolinguistics — to name just a few — highlight numerous benefits of the evolving trend. However a complex approach to integrating songs and drama in EFL learning has not so far received all the attention it deserves. The authors discuss an attempt at elaborating such an approach largely targeting young students in a L1 setting, its primary goal being to make them more motivated and receptive to language learning. We start by a brief overview of the present day state of the art, then move on to outlining the concept of the ELT Theatre and its implications for EFL learning, and finally illustrate some options of systemically implementing the approach offered to organising extra-curriculum at different stages of language acquisition.
Key words: EFL learning, language acquisition, educational drama, educational songs, the ELT Theatre, musical performances.
At present language teachers are increasingly concerned with finding reliable methods to improve students' ability to communicate appropriately and flexibly to be adequately understood in the target language. It has become more and more common to encounter various arguments for the use of non-traditional approaches to bridge the gap between classroom settings and real life situations. Scholars have been exploring drama and songs in the EFL learning context for over 70 years, and numerous publications point to linguistic merits and the motivational interest those activities generate in students aiding them to overcome the boredom often resulting from repetitive drills in a predominantly exam focused environment. Below we shall discuss some relevant findings pertaining to the sphere of language acquisition.
The research in educational drama rooting in constructivist theories of learning by L. Vygotsky and J. Bruner dates mostly from late1960s, most
Julia B. Kuzmenkova — Doctor of cultural studies, Professor, Head of Department of English Language for Social Sciences, School of Foreign Languages, National Research University Higher School of Economics (e-mail: kuzmen11@yandex.ru).
Maria A. Erykina — lecturer, French Language Department, School of Foreign Languages, National Research University Higher School of Economics (e-mail: fatemogana@yandex.ru).
well-known advocates of using drama in a L1 classroom being D. Heathcote and D. Bolton. About a decade later when Communicative Language Teaching and Task Based Learning rose to prominence their ideas transferred to teaching L2 and gained many supporters. Since within the Communicative Approach framework interaction is regarded as both the means and the ultimate goal of language learning, drama proved to meet those requirements through pair and group work activities intended to help students use the language meaningfully and appropriately. Many EFL teachers came to realise that by using drama techniques, the monotony of a conventional English class can be broken and the syllabus can be transformed into one which prepares students to face their immediate world better as competent users of the English language because they get an opportunity to use the language in operation and develop fluency in it [Zyoud, 2008].
The latter issue entails a well-known dilemma: what to focus on, fluency (and spontaneity) or accuracy (possibly, at the expense of spontaneity). Advocates of the former approach usually concentrate on drama as a process (for the purposes of enlarging perspectives and developing understanding) as opposed to those who consider drama as a product (a finished, polished production for the audience). It might be worthwhile to draw a distinction along the lines of contrast between the types of drama in question: typically, those who work with the young students or deal with the levels lower than intermediate are engaged in drama as a process while those aiming at professionalism tend to create drama as a product [Kuzmenkova, 2014].
Ultimately, teachers want their students to be both fluent and accurate in the way they speak; being accurate however does not just mean using structures and vocabulary correctly, but also saying the right thing in the right place, at the right time [Ladousse, 1992]. Drama activities give students an opportunity to strike a balance between fluency and accuracy [Maley, Duff, 1982]. Thinking along the same lines we made an attempt at reconceptualis-ing the existing approaches to drama activities and came up with the idea of the ELT Theatre [Kuzmenkov, Kuzmenkova, 2001]. Its aim in terms of Russian classroom needs is to bridge the gap between drama as a process and drama as a product so that extra curriculum work on the language skills to be mastered during rehearsals would correlate with routine ELT classroom activities, the former much contributing to the latter and visa versa. Within the new trend special emphasis is laid on making theatre serve different ELT purposes arising in the course of language acquisition.
We now move from the discussion of merits of drama activities to those of songs and music. Characteristically, the rationale for the evolving tendency to use songs in an EFL classroom has much in common and developed in parallel with that for educational drama. Songs started to be introduced to language teaching since the 1950s through to the 1970s and later, in Sugges-topedia methodology. However, it was the advance of the Communicative
approach in the 1970s and early 1980s that brought about a sudden demand for the pedagogical material for using songs in language-learning. The demand was met in early 1990s by a number of resource books, most well-known being those by C. Graham [1993], who created the concept of 'Jazz Chants' (the rhythmic unison speaking or singing texts in the language classroom) and T. Murphey [1992] who explored music and a variety of authentic language activities.
Over years scholars investigated songs' positive impact on developing students' language skills and cultural awareness. The latter aspect, vital for any language user, appeared to be a stumbling block not only for FL learners but also for their instructors [Gorodetskaya, 2008]; later they came to realise that songs can be a rich resource to teach cultural norms. Music, while universal, is culturally specific in that the musical content and style mirror a particular culture, acting as a cultural artefact that may both reflect and influence that culture [Engh, 2013].
According to Engh's review of recent publications, the beneficial effect of using songs in ELT is well substantiated. Engh examined academic perspectives from within the field of applied linguistics and made connections to the field from other disciplines ranging from cognitive science and psy-cholinguistics to anthropology and sociolinguistics that argue there is a firm empirical, theoretical and pedagogical basis to consider for the use of music as an aid in language acquisition. Further analysis of his representative sample indicates that over the past decade the number of publications on the issue under discussion more than doubled compared with that in early 2000s, and these facts signify that the promising evolving trend is gaining grounds.
It is expedient to point to some emerging similarities between approaches to songs and drama. Thus, Medina [1990] suggests it may be beneficial to attempt methods that more closely resemble life outside of the institutional classroom, which is generally filled with music, songs and stories. Because students learn a great deal of language before school age and outside of the institution once school has begun, it is potentially justifiable to consider non-traditional teaching methods that are less structured and ritualised. Her reflections seem to echo those of drama approach advocates.
It should be mentioned in this connection that H. Gardner's [1999] well-known hypothesis of the existence of multiple intelligences has provided a new way to look at student growth, and some researchers [Berman, 1998] claimed that students should be taught to increase not only their verbal, spatial and numerical intelligences but also musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal ones. Similar implications are valid for drama which can stimulate participants' bodies as well as minds to express ideas and feelings. Participants in drama need to have at least four highly developed intelligences: linguistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and bodily-kinaesthetic, sometimes even the term dramatic intelligence is used to comprise those four.
So far, we've been discussing some essential theoretical underpinnings that supported strongpoints of the approaches considered, trying to justify different merits of implementing them in an EFL classroom. However, the analysis of the vast body of literature (over 300 recent publications) on the use of drama and songs for EFL purposes failed to reveal any approach combining those activities and systemically integrating them into the language acquisition process. That brings us to discussing the potential and benefits of a complex approach relying on traditional and non-traditional teaching methods within the framework of the ELT Theatre. Thus, having provided answers to the question of why drama and songs are important we move on to addressing the question of how to use them efficiently.
As it was mentioned at the outset, the use of drama and songs in an EFL classroom has become quite common; what appears to be new about the approach offered is the focus on proper selecting lexical and grammatical items. It should be emphasised that the activities under discussion — fun though they are — rely on a serious guiding principle: songs and plays are treated as educational, i.e. as the teaching material which correlates with that of a particular educational programme. It is this correlation that makes the approach complex and systemic. Educational songs, plays and stories are chosen (or created) to meet the requirements of certain target audiences and contain corresponding grammar patterns and vocabulary. Typically, these language components seem to be underestimated or confused as the main emphasis is laid on the fun aspects, often at the expense of systemic integration of linguistic ones. Of course, the final results are largely beneficial — in a sense that students become more motivated and relaxed, and horizons of their learning become broader. However teaching goals tend to remain blurred and at times it is difficult to trace true guidelines for students' progress.
Songs deserve special attention, since "the introduction of vocal music as the foundation on which to either build a coordinated language-culture course or, more often, supplement an already established program, can be a powerful tool, especially when the music is a faithful reflection of the culture from which it derives" [Jones, 2008: 10]. Some other colleagues even go on to claim that "the conclusions for the use of music in the second language classroom are clear. Since music can be as viable a vehicle for second language acquisition as stories, then songs should not be treated as extracurricular entities" [Medina, 1990: 18]. Regrettably most teachers both in Russia and elsewhere cannot afford the luxury to treat them so, and the activities in question largely remain extra-curriculum or involve autonomous studies. Our case was no exception, and the experimental study of early 1990s conducted within the frame of the ELT Theatre initially targeted Moscow State University students and entailed extra-curriculum language training. It lasted for over half a decade and annually resulted in staging a play; owing to a large proportion of songs every play turned out to be a sort of a musical performance.
The outcomes of the experiment were thoroughly analysed and the implications obtained were projected downwards on the age scale as we intended to test various options of systemically implementing the complex approach for different categories of language learners. To provide for continuity of learning and to make it systemic songs, plays and/or stories could be united by the same plot. The plots themselves can centre round both the world of fantasy and that of everyday reality. This is especially true while teaching children. The access to the realm of modern science and technology with its inevitable star wars, computer games, electronic gadgets and the like can be granted by elders and mass media, or later, by kids themselves as they grow up. For beginners it seems appropriate first to get acquainted with the vocabulary pertaining to the sphere of nature — animals, birds, plants and the like, the underlying idea being that those elements are sort of eternal in our ever changing life and could easily be memorised. As to grammar, those patterns should be dealt with care and in proportion, not to overburden young students. The overall approach can be flexible but the choice of materials should correlate with the aspects taught at school or in the kindergarten; in the case of training outside of the institutional classroom much depends on the language competence of instructors — largely (grand) parents who wish to see their kids educated.
Now different stages of training at the elementary and (pre)intermediate levels should be considered.
Stage Levels Teaching materials Target activities
1 zero beginners — false beginners stories in L1 with ABCs of L2, simple songs (chants) mini-drama (based on repetition and imitation), vocalisation
2 false beginners — elementary parallel texts in L1 and L2, dialogues, educational songs role plays, educational minidrama, puppet shows, singing
3 elementary — (pre) intermediate texts / plays in L2, educational songs correlating with plots musical performances (educational plays incorporated with songs)
The initial stage targets young learners who are to make their first steps in English and aims to introduce the ABCs of L2. As we deal with students in a L1 setting, it is but logical to start by telling stories in their mother tongue and gradually incorporate them with English words and grammar patterns. That can be done quite naturally if plots contain English speaking characters who can also speak L1. Stories might be organised in a sequence and be close to life to stir students' interest in FL learning. After children have listened to a story (or its recorded version) they are invited to recap all the new information it contains, to do some drawings and to sing.
At this stage music and singing deserve special attention because singing (if approached creatively) can be quite helpful in language training. What music should be chosen for teaching purposes? That is the most obvious question
arising in this connection. And there is no universal recipe, especially for young learners. Elder students whose musical preferences are formed can be asked to express their opinions in questionnaires. However kids need teachers' guidance.
To answer the question posed it is appropriate to introduce a bit of a cultural perspective. In our multinational compartmentalized society it is difficult to follow any tradition, for (more often than not) it has become rather vague and uncertain. At least this appears to be the case with Russians. Practice shows that in Russia children often fail to be inspired either by chants (popular in the USA) or by traditional folk music. While creating some of our songs we deliberately relied on the baroque and pop styles. Commonly in baroque music the melody is well developed, while its rhythm is relatively simple. A typical baroque piece is rather balanced, relatively easy to catch and to recognize. Of course, young students could have difficulties with learning a melody, but once it is learnt it will stay in their memory for long and could serve as a basis for the following vocabulary building. As to modern pop music, this genre favoured worldwide also proved to be appropriate for teaching purposes.
At this stage, however, it does not seem expedient to use songs proper; rather we can turn to some musical fragments highly memorable and easy to perform. This practice of vocalisation preceding specific linguistic and musical production exists from the times immemorial, and, e.g. ancient Greeks would sing certain texts for educational purposes — to better familiarization and pronunciation. This approach reveals some parallels with old traditional Russian church music. Recorded in hook notation those tunes are characterized by a developed melody and a free, non-dominant rhythm which can at times be deeply concealed.
One and the same musical fragment can be used for song-like vocalisation of different words and word combinations, and when the tune is mastered there are no difficulties in singing even a completely unknown text. These musical fragments resemble what can be called Russian chants (for the lack of any better equivalent for the word popevki); they are somewhat similar to those employed by our American colleagues but are based on melodious patterns more familiar to the Russian ear. The fragments in question are rather short and repetitive, and instead of simply drilling the patterns to be memorised, children vocalise them which makes learning more enjoyable. Besides, one and the same tune can be used with different language items and the focus on one thing at a time also facilitates learning and helps mastering pronunciation. By the end of the course students are supposed to actively use most frequent words and phrases of colloquial English and get engaged in mini-drama activities.
The next stage targets those (pre)schoolers who can be called false beginners. Now stories, plays and songs can be introduced in two versions based on
parallel texts in L1 and L2. It is necessary to emphasise that the latter should in no way be that of word-for word translation of the former. Obviously, a L1 story can be longer and more detailed while its abridged and simplified L2 version can be a sort of a summary covering most essential facts. For more advanced students listening comprehension should apart from narrative texts proper contain dialogues as they are the most essential part of communication. For that reason dialogues should prevail in stories and songs and storytelling as such can be treated as a preparatory step to further drama activities.
Teaching materials can vary and include texts created specifically for the purpose or adapted tales well known to the audience. The work also entails more variety: students can first listen to a L1 story to facilitate listening comprehension in L2, or visa versa, start by a story in English and check their understanding by comparing it with its Russian version. The positive effect of turning to L1 should by no means be underestimated as it serves to reveal existing similarities and differences between cultures thus stirring learners' cultural awareness [Ter-Minasova, 2014]. Listening can be followed by different activities comprising the use of pictures, role playing and singing, to name just a few. At this stage singing can involve simple songs thematically connected with plots. An attempt has been made to create and record educational plays and songs with parallel texts in L1 and L2, the latter focusing mainly on easy grammar; grammar issues are reduced to Present Simple while the lyrics in general correlate with the topic of narration [Kuzmenkov, Kuzmenkova, 2011]. A good final product can be a puppet show where kids can make costumes and draw decorations, sing and dance — thus demonstrating the results of their own creativity.
The third stage comprises schoolchildren at their intermediate level. Now the emphasis can be shifted from listening comprehension to students' autonomous work which might range from role plays to drama activities. Storytelling might also be followed by quizzes and puzzles, language games and contests; moreover, those activities could be united within the frame of a particular plot [Kuzmenkov, Kuzmenkova, 2001]. As to the choice of the teaching material, quite a number of different stories and fairy tales can be updated and adapted for teaching purposes, i.e. the language topics from school curriculum should be incorporated in plots to be staged as musical performances.
Educational songs can accompany practically any type of activity, grammar songs being most efficient. At this stage students become confident enough to do without L1 versions and could even be encouraged to create their own lyrics to illustrate the use of grammar patterns they are mastering.
Finally, the question arises: in what proportion should the key components be introduced at the stages under discussion. Obviously, at the initial stage storytelling in L1 is predominant, drama activities should also be reduced to those in L1 (L2 items might be carefully integrated into L1 plays
and stories), and music — treated with utmost care (overindulgence might bring about a negative effect as kids quickly get tired). At the intermediate stage the balance could be slightly shifted to L2, storytelling can be aimed at bridging the gap between plays in L1 and those in L2, and the proportion of songs and music can be increased. At the last stage educational plays in L2 (possibly containing ELT songs) become a priority, the result being musical performances. The dynamic change of focus should correlate with teaching purposes and demands of target audiences.
Thus, the ultimate goal, namely to facilitate the learning process and consolidate linguistic skills, can be attained by a sort of synthesis of educational songs and drama and accomplished in staging musical performances. The method of repeated presentation of certain teaching materials applied both to plots and songs' lyrics serves to considerably enhance the beneficial effect. The approach in general is intended to awaken students' language and cultural awareness, to walk them through the exciting process of language acquisition. Treated now as a supplementary tool for teaching it nevertheless provides for learners' autonomy and interest in studies introducing elements of creativity in education.
References
1. Berman M. 1998. A Multiple Intelligences Road to an ELT Classroom. Wales: Crown House.
2. Bruner J. 1968. Processes of cognitive growth: Infancy (Heinz Werner Lectures). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.
3. Engh D. 2013. Why Use Music in English Language Learning? A Survey of the Literature. English Language Teaching, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 113—129.
4. Gardner H. 1999. Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York: Basic Books.
5. Gorodetskaya L.A. 2008. Mezhkul'turnaya kompetentnost' lichnosty [Learner's Intercultural Competence]. Moscow State University Bulletin. Series 19. Linguistics and Intercultural Communication, no. 2, pp. 9—17. (In Russ.)
6. Graham C. 1993. Grammar chants. More of Jazz Chants. Oxford: OUP.
7. Heathcote D., Bolton G. 1995. Drama for Learning: Dorothy Heathcote's Mantle of the Expert Approach to education. Portmouth, NH: Heinemann.
8. Jones R. 2008. Echoing Their Lives: Teaching Russian Language and Culture Through the Music of Vladimir S. Vysotsky. Dissertation, University of Texas at Austin Libraries.
9. Kuzmenkov A., Kuzmenkova J. 2001. Set the Stage. Moscow: Centercom.
10. Kuzmenkov A., Kuzmenkova J. 2001. Riddles of Enchanted Forest. Obninsk: Titul.
11. Kuzmenkov A., Kuzmenkova J. 2011. Not Afraid. A Christmas tale. Moscow: Zvukovaya kniga.
12. Kuzmenkova J. 2014. Drama Activities in English Language Teaching. SGEM psychology, sociology & healthcare, education. Albena, Bulgaria. Conference Proceedings, vol. 3, pp. 237—243.
13. Ladousse G. P. 1992. Role play. Oxford: OUP.
14. Maley A., Duff A. 1982. Drama Techniques in Language Learning. Cambridge: CUP.
15. Medina S. 1990. The effects of music upon second language vocabulary acquisition. Paper presented at the TESOL conference. San Francisco, CA. ED352834.
16. Murphey T. 1992. Music and Song. Oxford: OUP.
17. Ter-Minasova S.G. 2014. Prepodavanie inostrannykh yazykov v sovremen-noy Rossii [FLT in contemporary Russia. What lies ahead?]. Moscow State University Bulletin. Series 19. Linguistics and Intercultural Communication, no. 2, pp. 31-41. (In Russ.)
18. Vygotsky L. 1987. Problems of General Psychology. New York: Plenum Press.
19. Zyoud M. 2008. Using Drama Activities and Techniques to Foster Teaching English as a Foreign Language: a Theoretical Perspective. HYPERLINK "http:// www.finchpark.com/drama/articles/muntherZyoud.pdf" http:.//www.finch-park.com/drama/articles/ (accessed: 12.06.2016).
Ю.Б. Кузьменкова, М.А. Ерыкина
ПЕСНИ И ТЕАТРАЛЬНЫЕ ПОСТАНОВКИ В ОБУЧЕНИИ АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики» 101000, Россия, Москва, Мясницкая ул., 20
В свете всевозрастающего интереса к использованию нетрадиционных методов при обучении английскому языку как иностранному обращение преподавателей к учебным песням и театральным постановкам приобретает большую значимость. Исследователи, занятые в различных областях знания, включающих когнитивистику, психолингвистику, антропологию, социолингвистику и др., отмечают многочисленные преимущества этого перспективного направления. Однако комплексный подход, позволяющий интегрировать учебные песни и театральные постановки в образовательный процесс, еще не получил должного внимания. Авторами была разработана концепция обучающего английского театра, нацеленного на создание музыкальных театральных постановок — своего рода синтез учебных песен и пьес, для решения конкретных задач обучения российских учащихся, способствующих повышению их учебной мотивации при освоении английского языка в отрыве от естественной языковой среды. В начале статьи дается краткий обзор литературы, позволяющий отразить динамику развития и современное состояние исследуемой области, далее рассматриваются способы реализации авторской концепции обучающего английского театра в практике преподавания английского языка. Приводимые примеры служат иллюстрацией возможностей системного внедрения предлагаемого подхода на различных этапах работы, результатом которых могут стать музыкальные театральные постановки — своего рода синтез учебных песен и пьес, нацеленных на решение конкретных задач обучения.
Ключевые слова: обучение английскому языку как иностранному; учебные песни; театральные постановки при изучении иностранного языка; обучающий английский театр; музыкальные театральные постановки.
Сведения об авторах: Кузьменкова Юлия Борисовна — доктор культурологии, профессор кафедры английского языка для социальных дисциплин Департамента иностранных языков Национального исследовательского университета «Высшая школа экономики» (e-mail: kuzmen11@yandex.ru); Ерыкина Мария Андреевна — преподаватель кафедры французского языка Департамента иностранных языков Национального исследовательского университета «Высшая школа экономики» (e-mail: fatemogana@yandex.ru).
Список литературы
1. Городецкая Л.А. Межкультурная компетентность личности // Вестн. Моск. ун-та. Сер. 19. Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация. 2008. № 2. С. 9-17.
2. Кузьменков А.П., Кузьменкова Ю.Б. Not Afraid. A Christmas tale. М.: Звуковая книга, 2011.
3. Кузьменков А.П., Кузьменкова Ю.Б. Riddles of Enchanted Forest. Обнинск: Титул, 2001.
4. Кузьменков А.П., Кузьменкова Ю.Б. Set the Stage. М.: Центрком, 2001.
5. Кузьменкова Ю.Б. Drama Activities in English Language Teaching // SGEM psychology, sociology & healthcare, education. Albena, Bulgaria. Conference Proceedings, 2014. Vol. 3. P. 237-243.
6. Тер-Минасова С.Г. Преподавание иностранных языков в современной России // Вестн. Моск. ун-та. Сер. 19. Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация. 2014. № 2. С. 31-41.
7. Berman M. A Multiple Intelligences Road to an ELT Classroom. Wales: Crown House, 1998.
8. Bruner J. Processes of cognitive growth: Infancy (Heinz Werner Lectures). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press, 1968.
9. Engh D. Why Use Music in English Language Learning? A Survey of the Literature // English Language Teaching. 2013. Vol. 6. № 2. P. 113-129.
10. Gardner H. Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York: Basic Books, 1999.
11. Graham С. Grammar chants. More of Jazz Chants. Oxford: OUP, 1993.
12. Jones R. Echoing Their Lives: Teaching Russian Language and Culture Through the Music of Vladimir S. Vysotsky. Dissertation, University of Texas a t Austin Libraries. 2008.
13. Ladousse G.P. Role play. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
14. Maley A., Duff A. Drama Techniques in Language Learning. Cambridge: CUP, 1982.
15. Medina S. The effects of music upon second language vocabulary acquisition. Paper presented at the TESOL conference. San Francisco, CA. 1990.
16. Murphey T. Music and Song. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
17. Vygotsky L. Problems of General Psychology. New York: Plenum Press, 1987.
18. Zyoud M. Using Drama Activities and Techniques to Foster Teaching English as a Foreign Language: a Theoretical Perspective. 2008. URL: http:// www.finchpark.com/drama/articles/ (accessed: 12.06.2016).
