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12. Крымский С. Б. Философско-гносеологический анализ специфики понимания//Понимание как логикогносеологическая проблема. - Киев: Наукова думка, - 1982. - с. 24-43.
13. Кузнецов В. Г. Герменевтика и гуманитарное познание. - М.: Прогресс, - 1991.
14. Никифоров А. Л. Семантическая концепция понимания//Загадка человеческого понимания/Под общ. ред. А. А. Яковлева; сост. В. П. Филатов. - М.: Политиздат, - 1991. - с. 72-94.
15. Нишанов В. К. Феномен понимания: когнитивный анализ. - Фрунзе: Илим, - 1990.
16. Новая философская энциклопедия/Гл. ред. И. Т. Фролов. - 6-е изд. - М.: Политиздат, - 1991.
17. Рузавин Г. И. Проблема понимания и герменевтика//Герменевтика: история и современность. - М.: Мысль, 1985. - с. 162-178.
18. Филатов В. П. Парадоксы эмпатии//Загадка человеческого понимания/Под общ. ред. А. А. Яковлева; сост. В. П. Филатов. - М.: Политиздат, 1991. - с. 176-195.
19. Хайдеггер М. Бытие и время. - Харьков: «Фо-лио», - 2002.
20. Шлейермахер, Ф. Миросозерцание//Речи о религии. Монологи. - М.; Калинин: «REFL-book»; «ИСА», -1994. - с. 378-392.
21. Шульга Е. Н. Понимание и интерпретация. - М.: Наука, - 2008.
22. Юм Д. Трактат о человеческой природе. - СПб.: Азбука, - 2001.
Gulahmadov Shamsuddin, Masarik University, Erasmus Mundus PHD exchange students, the department of Anthropology E-mail: gulahmadov_sh@mail.ru
Some of concepts Abu Nasr Farbi about the structure of anthropological knowledge
Abstract: This article presents some ofbriefthe concepts ofAbu Nasr Farbi about the structure of anthropological knowledge in the middle Ages in the East. We will consider briefly some stages of development of spiritual, innate abilities, mastering skills, the general nature of people, talent, rational, reasoning and analysis, science and Practice, action and will, social sciences, and as well as anthropological ideas of Abu Nasr Farbi about the way of the history of philosophical thought.
Keywords: the spiritual, innate abilities, mastering skills, the general nature of people, talent, rational, reasoning
and analysis, science and practice.
It is necessary to consider the structure of anthropological knowledge of the East in a context of development of scientific knowledge and actually scientific traditions the established scientific tradition. The equally close attention is paid to each branch and to all scientific knowledge as a whole. If to take development of separate scientific knowledge, it is possible to note for an example works of scientists in the field of the Arabic language and literature (Ahmad Muhammad al-Khavfi, Fan al-kitaba (Oratory science), Kakhira, 1963; Badavi Tabban, ilm al-bayon (Science about stylistics), Kakhira, 1962; Ali al-Hindi, Fan at-tashbih (Science of comparisons — rhetoric, literature, criticism), Kakhira, 1952; Bahaddin Amili, Favaid as-samdiyya fi ilm al-arabiyya (Invariable advantage in knowledge of the Arab culture), Tabriz, 1837; etc.), also religion (Ihsan Abbas, Fan as-siyra (Science
about siyra), Beirut, 1956; Tantavi Javhari, Mizan al-ja-vahir (Scales ofjewelry), Istanbul, 1900; Husain Makayi, ilmi hol (State science), Namangan, 1911; Kasim Mudir Shanchiy, ilm al-hadis (Science about hadis — interpretation), Mashhad, 1966; Abu al-Kasim Ganji Samar-kandi, ilm tajvid (Reading science — the Koran on a singsong), Samarkand, 1966; etc.).
The East of that period was famous first of all for those traditions of Ancient Greece that were continued, enriched and developed. Early Islam as the religion, and then its secret schools of Sufism, personified achievements and richness of the previous spirituality and considered that studying of sciences and culture is the necessary requirement of time. Strengthening of influence of Islam went and therefore it carried out functions not only religions, but also distributions of knowledge of
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the nature, about the person, about relationship of the people, different spheres of life of society.
The system of special religious knowledge develops since the 9th century and on nowadays develops in the Muslim countries [1]. In the book “Continuation of Ancient Greek Sciences in Islam" Rosenthal E. J. wrote: “It is necessary not only to protect theoretically or practically, but also it is necessary to understand a religion place, i. e. Islam in science ... a place of this big engine not only in religious human life, but also in all its areas. Continuation and place of Islam are that big protection of the science and will be opening of doors for knowledge to Mankind” [2, 18].
Due to the distribution of doctrines of the Greek thinkers, especially Aristotle’s works, medieval scientists of the East couldn’t but get acquainted also with his anthropological doctrine. Aristotelean anthropology, as well as its entire heritage, had a great impact on the subsequent development of philosophy, culture as a whole. However it reflected a level of development of knowledge of antiquity. Followers of the Aristotelean doctrine in the East can be al-Kindi, al- Farabi and Ibn Sino. Due to the development of sciences on the basis of religion in many classifications of representatives of the East they began to prevail. It should be noted that this factor had impact on development of the anthropological knowledge of thinkers of the medieval East.
In this regard anthropological views ofMuslim thinkers deserve attention.
The reasoning on the nature (inherited qualities) of individuals in views of the majority of Muslim thinkers is based on recognition of a duality of human nature and a role of spiritual factors in his behavior. Besides, the similar reasoning is based on the components forming the personality, on freedom and a choice of the person, ways of creation of harmony between components and on learning tools of the person. All these factors are necessary features of social views of these thinkers. In this plan anthropological views of Mavlavi differ special transparency, clarity and originality [3, 413, 421].
Local assumptions of Muslim thinkers which include their special views of society and of social problems also differ from views of scientists-sociologists. Analyses concerning division of labor and mutual need of people in each other, as vital need which is put in a society context by Allah; role of the invisible worlds and metaphysical factors in public transformations; views concerning need of laws, the managements and religions in life of society belong to area of local assumptions of Muslim thinkers.
Among the majority of Muslim thinkers commitment to ideals and promotion of plans of creation of ideal society used a certain attention. Similar views were widespread also among thinkers ofAncient Greece and other representatives of social philosophy under the influence of who to a certain degree there were also Islamic thinkers. Nevertheless, promotion of the improved and improved options of this idea from Islamic scientists was an indicator of their conscious choice and recognition of need of this idea. Besides, the combination of this idea to ideological and valuable fundamentals of Islam, especially in works of Farabi, was the certificate of an innovation of Islamic scientists in this direction and their conviction that commitment to ideals is one of necessary requirements for society transformation [4, 168].
That situation that it is impossible to consider commitment to ideals as the negative phenomenon deserves attention and existence of this indicator in views of Islamic thinkers can’t be characterized as their weak point. Commitment to ideals if it is perceived from a position of the accounting of realities, is used for the purpose of improvement of society, formation of a cultural social revolution and public transformations, is the privilege by which present researches in the field of sociology are deprived.
In this context, the image of ideal society can be apprehended as a hint on existence of social decomposition and public disorders, as the offer of a suitable sample of future community ofpeople to be considered critical (instead of conservative) as a view of a social standing [5, 112].
Other important point which is obviously necessary to mention at reasoning’s on commitment to ideals, is the offer of theoretical ways and practical methods of movement to ideal society and its stage-by-stage implementation.
In views of Farabi the person by his state is above other beings. On the one hand, the person is allocated with a speech power and ability of a choice, he thinks and works; on the other hand, he is a being, independent, whose final perfection consists in achievement of happiness in the celestial world and isn’t reduced to using the benefits of the distant world. It is possible to see existence and influence of each of these triple components distinctly in explanations of Farabi [6, 114].
The order in virtuous society completely is based on a basis of human knowledge and awareness; and the societies opposite to this society, the more they are deprived of these components, and the more they will be deprived of possibility of achievement of happiness. Thus, the head of virtuous society who represents heart
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of this society; and in whose hands is the legislation, refereeing and observance of laws, is the wise personality (philosopher). And wisdom is considered as a basis of stability and stability of virtuous society; thus, lack of wisdom leads to society disorder.
In explanations of Farabi an important role is played also by existence of a freedom of choice. It carries out the distinctive line between will and a freedom of choice and is convinced that the freedom of choice is tendencies and the desires caused by thoughts and judgment in the presence of will which is based on the basis of feelings and imagination. Farabi adheres to belief according to which the will is present at all living beings, and the freedom of choice is peculiar only to the person. In his analyses Farabi seeks to recognize more important role behind a freedom of choice and recognizing a role of all other natural, acquired and conceptual factors, to exempt them from forcing feature. Really, the basis connected with virtue and happiness which is a framework of a public order at Farabi, makes the freedom of choice. Therefore Farabi is convinced that all societies can reach real happiness on the basis of a freedom of choice, and existence or absence of virtue in societies depends on freedom of their choice [7, 118].
In explanations of Farabi it is possible to find the influence of the third component that is the final stage of human perfection. He considers happiness in the celestial world which characterizes as “change of human soul and its perfection to level self-sufficing over the material beginning”, as a final stage of perfection of the person, and is convinced that any society which isn’t learning this purpose or not aspiring to it is considered an antipode of virtuous society. In particular, the governor of virtuous society needs to have idea of happiness in the mentioned sense and to take measures for the direction of people on the way to happiness; otherwise he isn’t worthy ranks of the governor of society. On this basis the societies which are an antipode of virtuous society, despite existence of material prosperity they, it can’t be compared.
Vital need is components without which human life is impossible or short. For a long time social life and division of socially significant work as two vital aspects were the focuses of attention of scientists. And on these two aspects, especially concerning social life, various views were stated. Farabi is one of Muslim thinkers who having paid attention to the matters connected these two vital needs with each other.
Classifying life of living beings and a social role of this life he subdivides them into five groups:
4. 2. 5. 1. — Group which only by social life can satisfy its necessary needs.
4. 2. 5. 2. — Group which can satisfy its necessary needs in individual life.
4. 2. 5. 3. — Group which can satisfy necessary requirements and reach more perfect way of life, both in individual, and in social life; thus social life can’t become an obstacle in a way of its improvement.
4. 2. 5. 4. — Group for which social life is an obstacle in a way of implementation of necessary affairs and achievements of the best life.
4. 2. 5. 5. — The group, which satisfaction of necessary requirements and achievement of bigger perfection directly depend on its social life (For more information of rather different views on social life look at: [8, 249, 306]).
Farabi correlates the person to the fifth group and in this plan writes: “The person treats those beings who can achieve the necessary objectives and the best life, only among the many people, collected in a certain place” [9, 69].
Concerning emergence of social life and a role of distribution of work in it he says:
“Each person for ensuring the safety and achievement of high degree of perfection needs a set of affairs, and it is impossible that he was able to finish them alone. Therefore he needs various people that each of them satisfied his certain requirement. On the same basis each of these persons needs other persons. Therefore it is impossible that the person reached the final perfection which is the requirement of his nature unless in the light of society at which there is a division of labor and where everyone strives for satisfaction of needs of others. For this reason, people, breeding, chose for life fertile lands, and as a result “human societies” were [9, 69].
Reminding of importance of distribution of work, Farabi speaks about need of professionalism and writes:
“Each of inhabitants of the virtuous city should be given concrete craft that he is specialized on it, and was engaged in only specifically taken business; it doesn’t matter whether it is a serving or a senior position. And nobody should allow to be engaged at once in a set of affairs or to choose more than one craft” [10].
The reason of a similar position Farabi explains with the following aspects:
1) Difference between abilities of individuals;
2) Difference in development of skills;
3) Familiarizing ofpeople with concrete professions, since children’s age;
4) Impossibility at the same time will engaged in several cases and specialties [11, 65].
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Identity of society
According to Farabi, society can’t exist irrespective of individuals making it. Even it is possible to tell that he doesn’t recognize that society for individuals is new identity. Really, in Farabi’s point of view, society is anything other, as set of human individuals. And a uniting factor for these individuals is the purposes for which implementation they seek in common, cooperating with each other. These are the purposes, which implementation is not in power of separately taken individual. On this basis it should be noted that existence of society is based on the objective beginnings, instead of on coercion and need. For its existence there is no more important regularity, than the laws dominating over the relations between individuals because the freedom of choice of people in them plays an important role.
In dissolute society as parts of immoral, changeable and stray society, also the purpose consists in commission of reprehensible affairs or unruliness of desires which are quite feasible at joint life with features of dissolute society. In similar society for implementation of this purpose people don’t unite on a conscious and voluntary basis. But they promote similar customs unconsciously, in other words, safety and stability of debauchery is an undesirable consequence of their actions.
Farabi considered members of ignorant, immoral and changeable society deprived of the real happiness. Hi also considered various “weeds" of virtuous society worthy some kind of punishments and subject to reeducation that, in his opinion, doesn’t contradict social and divine justice.
In a context of anthropological knowledge, recognizing the general nature of people, Farabi believes in existence between human societies of a difference which is present under the influence of natural differences, a variety of customs and the languages which are contractual and conditional aspects. He connects the reason ofa difference of various territories of the earth which are on the same parallels, with different degree of a saturation of vapors in air. And distinctions in degree of a saturation of vapors considers as the variety reason in climatic conditions, flora and fauna which cause a variety in foodstuff. And a variety of foodstuff, differences in the conditions of sowing and cultivation ofplants lead to a difference in natural customs and behavior of people. Besides, a variety of the heavenly phenomena directed on Earth, also involves a difference in acts of creation of people. In this direction Farabi is convinced available direct and indirect influence of heavenly spheres on acts ofcreation ofpeople, on their customs and, as a result, on differences between societies [11, 75].
On the other hand, recognizing the main role of culture, education of people available differences between human societies, in his turn, Farabi considers a difference in sciences and education by a consequence of the following natural and inherited qualities of people:
1. — Difference between people taking into account talents and fitness to a special form of education and the rational beginnings.
2. — Difference in abilities and degree of readiness of people to assimilation of special knowledge and the rational beginnings.
3. — Difference between people in the field of acquisition of skills and awareness.
4. — Difference between people in ability to understanding, reasoning and the analysis [12, 873].
Farabi recognizes a fundamental role of the general nature of people, human talents and abilities and, at the same time, he is convinced that existence of the general nature in people doesn’t contradict freedom of their choice and influence of other natural and acquired factors on their behaviors [13, 145].
Farabi and social organism
The idea about similarity of society and a live organism (an animal or a plant) originates deep into ofhistory (Similar differences which, eventually, lead to a role of celestial bodies, Farabi considers unusual for the person. But other type of perfection, that is the spiritual perfection feeding on a source of Active Reason, it carries to number of features of the person. According to his belief, the mentioned differences in customs and behavior in the course of interrelation generate other moral qualities) [Look at: 9, 70, 71]. Traces of this mentality can be found distinctly among the scientists living before blossoming of the Greek science, among the Greek philosophers, Muslim and non-Muslim thinkers of the East and the western scientists. Some sociologists, such as August Comte, expressed their opinions on the matter rather accurately (The question of similarity of society and live organism has also the opponents. For example, Thomas Hobbes and Jean Jacques Rousseau disproved similarity existence between society and an organism. And, on the contrary, many western philosophers the main among whom are Herbert Spencer and also Muslim thinkers spoke about similarity of a live organism to society. Certainly, in modern sociology the question of an order (or system) replaced itself a question of an organism, being applicable in relation to living beings and human society.) [For more detailed information look at: 14, 70-73].
These scientists, being unanimous on similarity of society to a live organism, nevertheless, on separate
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details and aspects of the matter, such as conclusions from this similarity, its use only as allegory for entering of bigger clarity into structure of public life, and moreover, on an equivalence of the parties of similarity, had various opinions.
Spencer is the most outstanding scientist who in detail stated a question of similarity of society with a live organism. He is convinced in availability of six aspects of similarity and three aspects of difference between these two concepts. It is possible to tell that among Muslim scientists Farabi more than others at the description of ideal virtuous society were interested in the question of similarity of society with a live organism. At the description of this similarity between society and a live organism he is convinced that between elements of society and parts of a live organism many contradictions and differences take place, and in a life pyramid they are allocated with a certain hierarchy. In each of these pyramids (society and an organism) of lives always there will be an element which will stand at top. That is there will be an element which is the head (rais), leading, instead of conducted, and in the lowest step there is an element which is the servant (serving), instead of the owner (served). Each step from these two hierarchies is according to other step and carries out the duties agrees with commands of a higher step [15, 35].
Farabi claims that from the point of view of force and the congenital nature, bodies and elements of a body are different. One ofbodies, heart is the main, and other bodies are on various after it importance steps. In the nature of each body force by means of which this body according to command ofhead carries out duties. At the second step also there are elements which by own efforts carry out actions according to commands of elements ofa higher step; and so to that step for which communications with the head of a pyramid no intermediaries are present.
In the nature of each organ is force by means ofwhich this organ according to command of head carries out duties peculiar to it. At the second step also there are elements which by own efforts carry out actions according to commands of elements of a higher step; and so to that step for which communications with the head of a pyramid no intermediaries are present. Elements of this last step are only serving and don’t possess predominating situation at all.
The analogy of this hierarchy also exists in society. Individuals of society also by their nature and inherited qualities are different. In society one of individuals is a head (rais), and certain individuals are in hierarchy close to him. Each of these individuals has qualities and skills
by means of which he carries out the actions planned by the head. They belong to the first step (from above). After them there is a group which finishes affairs on their discretion. This group belongs to the second step. After them follows another step performing works on their command. And this hierarchy of individuals of society proceeds to the lowest step which carries out actions according to commands of a higher step. Individuals of this group only serve, and none of members of society is engaged in their service [16, 48].
Farabi sees the main difference between society and a live organism that individuals of society carry out the duties on the basis of knowledge, thoughts and an idea; in the presence they have freedom of choice. Whereas parts of an organism will deprived of any consciousness and will and carry out the functions by natural force. He writes: “Parts of an organism are natural, and their qualities are also allocated with natural forces [not strong-willed]. And members of society though they are natural, nevertheless, qualities and skills by means of which they carry out the affairs, are unnatural [and strong-willed]" [7, 118].
In any case, “today the sociology looks at society and on living beings as at system, that is “whole” here consists from interconnected and at the same time to a certain degree of the independent parts seeking for achievement of a common goal” [7, 119]. Farabi also at reasoning on actions and functions of parts of a body and similarity of society with it, looks at this question from the point of view of orderliness. The meaning that each part of a body in a natural order of an organism depending on forces which in it is occupied with a certain action which enters a circle of its functions. In this regard Farabi writes: “Virtuous society is similar to a healthy body with the complete parts which all elements are in interaction for preservation and end of biological life” [17, 335].
Farabi, depending on existence or lack of self-sufficiency, divides human societies on full and incomplete. Then he divides full societies into big, average and small societies taking into account a certain quantitative measure that is on degree of prevalence of the population on the fertile and equipped parts of the earth. Big society is understood as all people of the world who, rallying, cooperate with each other. Average society is meant as the people who gathered and live on the improved parts of the earth, and small society is inhabitants of one city who gathered on a certain territory of one country.
And to incomplete societies, from the point of view of Farabi, belongs the population of one village, quarter, lane or members of one family.
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Taking into account that society can’t be less than a city on structure and number of the population, then the minimum condition for achievement of the best benefit is existence of the city society. The main object of research of Farabi is small society, that is the city population which is called by him “civil (or city) society” (jamea al-madani). Taking into account the purpose set for each of these societies for which implementation people united and cooperate with each other, he divides city societies into two general categories — virtuous and not virtuous, in turn, having divided not virtuous society for several categories. Thus he recognizes signs of ideological and cultural questions.
The remarkable moment is that Farabi, saying about city society, as about full society that is a consequence of influence on it the Greek philosophers and, especially, Aristotle, nevertheless, didn’t fail to remind also about virtuous community of brothers in faith (umma) and the virtuous people (millat). This circumstance is the sign of attention of Farabi to a question of incomplete compliance of Aristotelean concept city society (madina) to Islamic societies and as divisions of power structures and the people, and recognition of priority of society from the point of view of sociology [7, 118].
Virtuous society of Farabi is a community of human individuals who are allocated with interference and social unity. Individuals of society as well as nature elements, being rather independent and individually mobile, on the basis of social unity form a uniform order. The order in the virtuous city, like a world order (in a general sense) and the order of a human body, is self-sufficient, and individuals are in it at various steps of the helicoid structure having a form of longitudinal hierarchy. The dignity of each individual is depending on natural and individual factors and from the behavioural skills acquired by him and traditions.
The head of society appoints each individual to a state appropriate to him (service or domination) taking into account two mentioned norms. The order in society begins with the first head (raisi avval) who serves nobody and submits to nobody. And it comes to the end with the last (bottom) step of a social pyramid which consists of estate of people who only serve, but don’t govern at all). From the point of view of Farabi, the head of society plays the first role in a public order. And streamlining by affairs of society is carried out on the basis of submission of a head of society about happiness. The first head represents heart of public system and community of individuals of society. Members of society consider the head an ideological example and an example
of practical behaviour, and distribution of products of social activities is regulated depending on proximity and remoteness degree from him. Nevertheless, individuals use independence and freedom of action [18, 53].
One of the most remarkable parties of philosophical system of Farabi is his doctrine about knowledge to which he paid much attention in many treatises: «Philosophical questions and answers to them»; «Essence of wisdom»; «Comments»; «Civil policy»; «About the beginnings of existence of forms and accidents», etc. In these works were taken up such questions, as emergence of human knowledge, its relation to reality, knowledge of objective reality, degree of cognoscibility of the world, a form and types of knowledge, concrete and abstract relationship in knowledge, interrelation of a body and soul, etc.
He divided knowledge in practical which calls craft and art, meaning possession equipment of any type of work, and in theoretical, covering all types of science [19, 252, 281]. Object of the last are real-life existence and its various properties and qualities. He tried to find out character, tasks and public advantage of concrete sciences in the general system of theoretical knowledge and imposed big requirements to them, dividing them into groups. In the sphere of theoretical knowledge the main place is taken by philosophy.
In the sphere of theoretical knowledge Farabi defined philosophy as science about the general properties and laws of life and characterized its relation to concrete sciences, as the relation ofthe general and private [20, 148].
Taking into account that each of these two types is reached by two types ofskilful receptions (sanai) [21, 67]: one of types of skilful receptions and sciences gives to the person opportunity to learn what is learned, and the other type gives to the person knowledge of what is feasible. (Sanai (arts) are sciences which are reached by means of action or belong to quality of any action, such as, for example, logic).
The last group, in turn, divides into two parts: the first, is skillful receptions and sciences by means ofwhich the person influences “society”, such as medicine, trade and navigation. And other part consists of arts which give the person ability of a choice and force for a fulfilment of laudable affairs and commission of the correct actions.
Each of these groups of art is the carrier of the special purpose for the person. The purpose of arts by means of which the person influences society, consists in obtaining benefit (naf); and the purpose of two other groups of art is comprehension of beauty (Jamal). The arts which purpose consists in achievement
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of beauty, divides into two categories: 1) science; 2) science and practice. The philosophy also divides into two categories: 1) the theoretical philosophy including knowledge of aspects, which implementation is not in power of the person; actions of the person have no relation to their creation; 2) practical (civil) philosophy, that is knowledge of the aspects, which implementation is in power of the person. They are created by means of acts and will of man.
Thus, along with clarification of the reason of that social sciences in the mentioned list are called in one section with the fikh and kalam, it becomes clear to us that in science about society (sociology) a main objective are ethical, individual and social aspects of the person [22] (It is necessary to remember that under the word “ethics" (ahlak) in the phrase “a main objective are ethical aspects” is understood not its nowadays popular value, but broader sense including also science about society).
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Zhulkov Mikhail Vyacheslavovich, Ivanovo State University, Ph. D., Associate Professor
E-mail: mzh1@mail.ru
Practice Illumination and Enlightenment: the meeting of two consciousnesses
Abstract: This paper is devoted to the study of the Tibetan practice of illumination and enlightenment, and the possibility of its widespread use for the development of consciousness. Using the energy metaphor of
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