CC BY
1354. Lattimore, Owen. The Mongols of Manchuria. NY: Howard Fertig, 1969.
55. Perdue, Peter C. China Marches West: The Qing conquest of Central Eurasia. Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University, 2005.
56. Pratt, Mary Louise. Imperial Eyes: Travel writing and Transculturation. Routledge. 2000.
57. Reardon-Anderson, James. Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty// Environmental History, Vol. 5. 2000 (4). Oct. P. 503-530.
58. Spence, Jonathan D. The K'ang-his Reign / the Cambridge history of China. Vol. 9. Ed. by Willard J. Peterson. Cambridge: University press, 2002. Р.120-182.
Намсараева Саяна Баировна (Sayana Namsaraeva), научный сотрудник Исследовательского центра Mongolia & Inner Asia Studies Unit (MIASU, Cambridge University); докторант ИМБТ СО РАН. Почтовый адрес: MIASU The Mond Building, Free School Lane, Cambridge CB2 2RF UK. E-mail: [email protected] или [email protected]
Namsaraeva Sayna - researcher in Center of Mongolia & Inner Asia Studies Unit (MIASU, Cambridge University)
УДК 94 (571.5) © S.V. Vasilieva
The role of Old Believers in reclamation of Baikal Asia
The article is devoted to religious and ethnocultural diversity of proto-Imperial practice towards religious ethnical groups on Russian boarders. Special attention is given to inland long distance migration streams of Old Believers in Baikal Asia as well as phenomenon of specific capability for adaptation and resilience of Old Believers.
Key words - confession, Old Belief, Baikal Asia, migration streams, compact areal, adaptation issue, inner-confessional well being.
© С.В. Васильева Роль старообрядцев в освоении Байкальской Азии
Статья посвящена религиозному и этнокультурному разнообразию протоим-перских практик в отношении религиозных этнических групп на русской границе. Особое внимание уделяется внутренним большим дистанциям миграционных потоков старообрядцев в Байкальскую Азию, а также феномену специфических возможностей для адаптации и устойчивости старообрядцев. Ключевые слова: конфессия, старообрядчество, Байкальская Азия, миграционные потоки, компактный ареал, проблемы адаптации, внутриконфессио-нальное благополучие.
Russia has always been and still stays multiconfessional country. Its people have belonged and still belong to different trends of numerous religions -
Christianity (in the form of old Orthodoxy - Old Believers, Orthodoxy and Catholicism), Islam, Buddhism, Judaism and many others. Religious life of the country has never been easy and monosemantic.
From the second half of XVIII century population movement towards imperial boarders (spontaneous and regulated by the state) is starting to be viewed in government and society as an expedient tool for political construction of the Empire.
Despite the settlement process of Old Believers in Siberia and Far East being based on free-will, penetration to the region of Baikal Asia was mostly done by exiled Old Believers. At the place where they were exiled they build up solid informal community which later became a core for traditional institutions of self-government. This fact made them to be pioneer frontiers and made them involved in diverse processes of reclamation of Baikal Asia.
During last years some changes have happened in the culture of Baikal region, as well as reconsideration of values of different cultures and religions, which vary according to the ethnic watershed: while Cossacks are oriented towards the cathedral Orthodoxy, towards the cultural historic achievements of their social class; Buryats are oriented towards cultural values of the Orient, Mongolian speaking world and Buddhism; Old Believers of Baikal Area - towards the cultural achievements of Russia. Such situation has existed for many centuries, but till nowadays it has existed mostly in the depth of national spirituality, pressed by the large - scaled experiment of creating new social culture. Such situation, being the reflection of geopolitical interests, can not fail to draw our attention to it.
Nowadays changes in attitude to cultural and historic confessional groups, that came to Baikal Area are very important. The history of their formation in Baikal Area is quite complicated and has a lot of peculiarities.
Old Believers of Baikal Area are considered to be a specific branch of Russian people. Because of the refusal to accept new rules and different innovations in Russian Orthodox Church in the 18th century the ancestors of Old Believers had to run to the remote parts of the country and abroad in order to escape from pursuit.
While living in Zabaikalye, Old Believers got the name «Semeyskie». This specific ethnonim (ethnic term) is connected with the fact, that Old Believers settled by big families. For Old Believers of Gorniy Altai the ethnonim was «kamenshiki», «polyaki», «kerzhaki». For Old Believers of Romania and Moldavia - «lipovane»; for Old Believers of South Ural - «kulguri», «harbinci» for Old Believers of the USA, «nekrasovci» for Old Believers of Turkey and so on. In the official documents of Russian Empire Old Believers were given the name «raskolniki» [1], or «splitters», and it was an offensive term.
The Culture of Old Believers (Semeyskie) in the period of adaptation had mostly traditional character, and its development had two tendencies: the essence of the first one was the self-preservation of conservative traditions of Russia in the 13 th-17th centuries, that corresponded with the savings of cultural tradition. The essence of the second tendency - interdependence and influences of different social environments, various ethnic groups,
which were difficult to escape; thus, the result was - the innovations and changes in the culture.
The process of the formation of Old Believers in Zabaikalye was gradual. The researchers pick out [2] some stages in the development of this formation, which are characterized by meaningful changes that happened in life of Old Believers in different periods of time.
1. The first period starts from the beginning of schism in Russia in the 17 th century till the formation of spiritual centers in Vetka (from where Old Believers of Zabaikalye were evicted).
2. The second grade is connected with the foundation of cultural and religious centers of Old Believers in Vetka (Today it is Gomelskaya Oblast in the republic of Belorussia). The culture of Old Believers had mostly been traditional, but in spite of quite a big degree of traditionalism, that could not fail to have some innovations still.
3. The third period of the formation of Old Believers' culture ran already in the Area of Zabaikalye, since their removal to this area till the second half of the 18th century. This period had a range of peculiarities: remoteness from the maternal ethnic group, uneven destiny of population, local migration process.
4. The forth grade is considered to be the blossoming of the culture of Old Believers. In the second half of the 19th century there was a decrease of attitude to Old Believers from the Government. It was marked by the increase in the number of cultural buildings; by the growth of Old Believers population; by the economical welfare, which was accompanied not only by the delivery of goods to the market of Zabaikalye, but also to its boundaries; the development of folk creative work was characterized by the presence of various styles in the technique of wood engraving, house - painting, jeweler's art of Old Believers; folk tradition blossomed and enriched.
5. New period in the history of Old Believers began after the Great October Revolution, when the life of Old Believers changed a lot, because the Government began to influence all the confessions and ethnic groups in Russia. The main peculiarities of that period were: the disintegration of religious unions, leaving the Churches and temples for simple peasant's houses, «secret» Old Believers Unity, total removal of the population from Religion.
6. The next period can be connected with the beginning of the renascence of Old Believers culture (the end of the 20th century). It was characterized by the process of the formation of the religious Old Believers unities. In Buryatia about 18 Old Believers Unions can be found (The Tarbagataiskiy Center of Family Culture, the Republican Center of Old Believers Culture Studies, the Union of Old Believers); religious communities (in the villages Hasutra, Bichu-ra, Kuytun, in Ulan-Ude - Verchneudinskaya community, Old Believers Center). The first arrival of Old Believers of Zabaikalye in 1993 is considered to be the most important event in the first grade of the organized Old Believers movement, a specific moment in the confessional history in the contemporary conditions, the result of changes in the ideological worldview of Old Believers. At the first Meeting of Old Believers the official documents were adopted - the
Charter of Old Believers Community of Zabaikalye and the program of culture - developing activities during 1993-1996.
The beginning of the new century is connected with important events in the studies of history, culture and language of Old Believers of Zabaikalye. In October 2000 in Ulan-Ude Scientific Conference, devoted to the problems of history, culture and language of Old Believers of Zabaikalye, was held. June of 2001 is famous for the fact, that the capital of Buryatia became the place of holding the Russian Scientific Conference, concerning the problems of Old Believers of Siberia and Far East. In May 2007 in Ulan-Ude the International forum was held: Avvakum's Way, where not only the scientists, but also the representatives of Old Believers from all over the world met: from Canada, Poland, the Ukraine, Estonia, China, Japan and Latvia.
In comparison with the settlement process of Old Believers in Russia, Western Siberia and Far East, where it was voluntarily, in Zabaikalye they penetrated to the region either as exiles or as colonists. The essential meaning had the exile. This fact made the Government conduct very careful politics in terms of native population of the area, including the Religion matter.
From Verchoturye a lot of horse-drawn vehicles, carts and sledges, transporting the necessary house-hold implements, ran to unknown Siberia through the old Moscow highway. It was the way to Zabaikalye, where the runaway Old Believers from central Russia were sent.
The first period of the removal of Old Believers belongs to 1735, though more numerous settlements during that time to the territory of Zabaikalye had not been observed. The most numerous removal was in 1746, when 14 parties from 23 of Old Believers settled in Zabaikalye.
According to Bolonev's research we may define the number of the se t-tlers, which was determined with the help of the facts, concerning the quantity of the food-stuff, given to Old Believers and their convoy, and also, concerning the route of Old Believers (Bug, Vinnica, Gorohov, Boh, Ber-dyaev, Starodubi, Vetka, Kaluga, Kazan, Tobolsk, Baraba, Altai, Zabaikalye). Old Believers from Poland were sent to Kaluga, then- through waterways by the Oka and the Volga to Kazan. There the parties of Old Believers were divided. One part (8 parties) was sent to Ekaterinburg, the other one (14 parties) was sent to Tobolsk, Verchorutye, after that Old Believers were sent to Altai and Zabaikalye.
During 60s-70s of the 18th century in Zabaikalye a lot of big peasant's villages appeared, situated in the drainage-basin of the river Selenga. Mostly Old Believers were settled at native old residents'.
So, by the end of the 18th century the process of sanctioned removal had obtained systematic and mass character. Being unevenly distributed on the territory of the area, the member of the settlers had been increasing constantly because of the migration processes and the natural growth of the population. As a result of the removal of Old Believers in the 18th century in Zabaikalye, the territory center of Old Believers was founded. So, about 5000 settlers of Old Believers had found place to live there, and in the 18 th-19th centuries, because of the overpopulation of the villages along the rivers, local migration process
began, connected with religious ideology of different followers, lack of land and also with the growth of Old Believers family clans.
Since the middle of the 19th century the «distant» migrations had begun, when the Old Believers of Zabaikalye moved to the North Siberia and Far East. The removal to Ayanski Highway, which was not properly organized by the Government and severe climate conditions destroyed the plan to settle in Yakutia. So, some of them returned back to Zabaikalye, some - went to Far East. And it helped to integrate Zabaikalye to the political, economical and cultural sphere of the Far East of Russia.
The absence of the united religious center, united spiritual power among the defenders of Old Believers held to their splitting into different trends and directions. The general scientific classification distinguishes two main branches: those, who admit the necessity of clergy (Popovshina) and those, who deny its necessity (Bespopovshina). Also, both of these branches, especially Bespopovshina, are divided into small groups and unities.
The specific character of the religious life of Old Believers in Zabaikalye consisted of the diversity of different laws and agreements inside the main branches, that was a reflection of the organized search for the truth in the philosophical- religious understanding, change in ideological orientations, the main point of the confessional group, which is far from spiritual religious centers. It is necessary to stress that the ideology of Old Believers and their world outlook was formed deliberately. The only spiritual mentors of Old Believers in Zabai-kalye were the priests, remoted from the official Orthodoxy, runaway priests and regulators. In the period of living in Zabaikalye the mass event for Old Believers was the denial of confession and communion in orthodox churches because of their religious beliefs. They did not cross their children in orthodox temples, but brought them up in the way of their old beliefs, for what they had been warned by the official church and the Regime.
The main peculiarities of the formation and the development of Old Believers in Zabaikalye consisted in the fact that the basis of their ideology was the religious ethics, which determined their attitude to the household activity, the surrounding population, and also to the state institutes.
Till the 20th century the main role in the Government in the working out of main principles of influencing Old Believers had the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the control after the region was carried out by the Secret Committee of Split [3].
The missionary activity of the Orthodox Church among the Old Believers of Zabaikalye [4] did not have many results, because for a long time the official church considered Old Believers to be heretics, deserving only punishment.
Old Believers, in their turn, resisted proclaiming of the united belief, showed their protest against oppressions, arrests of the priests, chapel's upseal-ing and illegally supported the rules of their old beliefs.
Russian laws were spread in Zabaikalye as well; they were common for the whole country. But the number of secret resolutions proves the fact that the
Government took into consideration some moments of the activity of Old Believers. It was connected with the fact, that Zabaikalye, being the most important region in communication of Russian State with Far East, Mongolia and China, played a great role in firm establishment of Russia in the East, concerning the foreign politics and internal matters of the Empire. The importance of the foundation of the new constant Russian population in the area and the importance of economic mastering of Zabaikalye by this population were taken into consideration. Old Believers were admitted as the most necessary branch of the settlers: they got used to any conditions, developed all the spheres of economics quite fast, and almost did not assimilate. That is why in the region of Zabaikalye the laws, limiting the position of Old Believers, were not always put into practice, or were not very strict.
The Government was much concerned about the spread of Orthodoxy. Russian Orthodox Church relied on the help of the Soviet Power. But in case, when the interests of the church ran counter to the research of this region, the government stayed for the latter. As a rule, the governmental politics in the sphere of religion was conducted according to the practical need of the region.
Considering Old Believers of Zabaikalye as local settlers [5], one can agree with the fact «...that for them such processes, as consolidation, interethnic integration, and then assimilation were natural. But the degree of their manifestation differed from time to time. During the first period of their removal and settlement consolidation had a great dominance, later, interethnic integration was observed. The process of assimilation was not spread much among Old Believers of the region of Zabaikalye. The degree of traditionalism and conservatism was too high in its culture, and also there were some elements of resistance to the influence of other cultures [6].»
Thus, the formation and the development of Old Believers in the region of Zabaikalye as a social phenomenon was determined not only by its inner reserves, inner processes of consolidation and unity, but also depended on politics, held by local administration, position of the Church, and on the support of local population, whose world outlook was based on the Orient mentality, traditions of shamanism and buddhism.
Reference
1. Vasilyeva S. V. Regime and Old Believers of Zabaikalye. (the end of the 17th century - the beginning of the 20th century). - Ulan-Ude. Buryat State University, Press, 2007. - P. 5.
2. Petrova E. Social and Cultural Adaptation of Old Believers in Zabaikalye. Ethnosociological Analysis. - Ulan-Ude, 1999. - P. 123-126.
3. GAIO. F.50. Op.8. D.556. L.67.
4. NARB. F.478. Op.2. D5a. L.89.
5. Vasilyeva S. V. Regime and Old Believers of Zabaikalye (the end of the 17th century- the beginning of the 20th century). Ulan-Ude. Buryat State University Press, 2007. - P.37.
6. Bolonev F.F. Vasilyeva S. V. Traditional Culture of Old Believers of Zabai-kalye // The World of Old Believers. Issue 4. Living Traditions: the Results
and perspectives of complex research of Russian Old Believers. - M., 1998. -Р. 400.
Васильева Светлана Владимировна - доктор исторических наук, доцент кафедры истории Отечества Бурятского государственного университета. Vasilieva S.V. - ScD, professor, Buryat State University.
УДК 317.72 (=584) (571.54) © Ts.P. Vanchikova
Tibetans in Buryatia: a new phenomenon in cultural diversity of the Republic
The article examines the history of the formation of the Tibetan diaspora in Buryatia. The author considers the role of Tibetan lamas in the restoration of Buddhism in Buryatia. Special attention is paid to adapting Tibetan monks in a foreign linguistic and ethnic environment. Keywords: tibetans, diaspora, Buryatia.
© Ц.П. Ванникова
Тибетцы в Бурятии: новое явление в культурном разнообразии республики*
В статье рассматривается история становления тибетской диаспоры в Бурятии. Автор рассматривает роль тибетских лам в восстановлении буддизма в Бурятии. Особое внимание уделяется адаптации тибетских монахов в чужой языковой и этнической среде. Ключевые слова: тибетцы, диаспора, Бурятия.
The republic of Buryatia is remarkable for its cultural diversity. This fact is due to different peoples living in it, each with their authentic culture and traditions. Nowadays representatives of more than 30 different nationalities inhabit the territory of Buryatia. The socialist theory of building «one great nation -that is of a soviet people (narod)» failed after the beginning of «perestroika». The new epoch have created challenges to which all peoples have responded with innovative discourses. Peoples of the former USSR of almost of all nationalities and ethnic groups either large or small began to seek for their ethnic roots. The same happened in Buryatia. By the beginning of 90-ies there appeared many public ethnic organizations and communities with the aim to restore and to revive their ethnicity and formerly forbidden ethnic traditions. All this made the social life of the Republic diverse and varied. These processes are characterized by several specific features. One of the quite innovative and remarkable features in these processes through which Buryat identity and Budd-
* Впервые опубликована в Улан-Баторе в материалах конференции «Cultural diversity of nomads», 2011. - P. 99-106.
