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33LINGUISTICS
UDC 8133
REVERSIBLE METAPHORICAL MODELS 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' AND 'MAN IS A MECHANISM': PRODUCTIVITY OF THE MODEL AS AN ASPECT OF FUNCTIONAL ASYMMETRY
A.A. Abramova
National Research Tomsk Polytechic University (Tomsk, Russian Federation).
E-mail: neanastasiya@yandex.ru
Abstract. This article, by means of statistical data processing, reveals the productivity of a metaphorical model 'MAN IS A MECHANISM' in comparison with a metaphorical model 'MECHANISM IS A MAN', being reversibly compatible. This research is based upon the methodology of cognitive linguistics and on materials of the National Russian Corpus using statistical methods of material analysis.
Keywords: cognitive linguistics; metaphorical model; reversible metaphorical models; conceptual sphere; productivity.
Introduction
Within the cognitive approach the metaphor is considered as a prism, which reflects the most significant features and qualities for a human being, usually assigned to the object of comprehension [1-5].
Lakoff and Johnson, when working on the study of the common conceptual system of the humankind, singled out its metaphoricalness: "Metaphor penetrates into our everyday life, moreover, it goes into our language as well as into the process of cognition and activities" [1]. The theory of the conceptual metaphor interprets the cognitive mechanism of unification of the two conceptual spheres as correlated terms called "a target-sphere" and "a source-sphere". As a rule, the source-sphere is some more concrete knowledge received by a human being in the process of actual experience of cooperation with the outside world; and the target-sphere is something less concrete, less clear, that is why it is being interpreted on the basis of the former [Ibid].
The theory of the conceptual metaphor presented by Lakoff and Johnson, focused on cognitive metaphorical models, being realized in the system of metaphorical categories, was later continued by a number of foreign and national linguists: José Ortega y Gasset, Tchenki, Baranova, Borodulina, Kubryakova, Mishankina, Rakhilina, and Rezanova.
Cienki describes an important feature of metaphorical models, arguing that any areas, connected with the metaphor, are asymmetrical and unequal. For example: a metaphor 'LOVE IS JOURNEY' - is widely spread in a num-
ber of cultures, but a metaphor 'JOURNEY IS LOVE' is not so efficient, as physical events are not apprehended through the abstract ones [6: 352].
Studies of the metaphor from the aforementioned point of view made researchers realize the semantic reversibility of metaphorical models. Reversible metaphorical models are considered as functional types of conceptual metaphors, characterized by the inverse ratio of source and target spheres: a cognitive source-sphere of a certain metaphorical model within a reversible model is a target-sphere, and on the contrary, a target-sphere of the first model constitutes a source-sphere of another model [7: 10]. A problem of semantic correlation of metaphorical models, characterized by the inverse ratio of source and target spheres of the metaphorical modeling, was initially set up by Z.I. Rezanova [7, 8]. Certain reversible conceptual models were studied by E.A. Poturaeva [9] and Day Inly [10].
Our previous papers describe such reversible metaphorical models as 'COMPUTER IS A MAN' and 'MAN IS A COMPUTER' [11]; 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' 'MAN IS A MECHANISM' from the point of view of their content-related and axiological correlation. The metaphorical model 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' has also been considered in terms of productivity of metaphorical modeling [12].
Research design and methodology
Purposes and objectives of the study: The purpose of the study is to analyze productivity of the metaphorical model 'MAN IS A MECHANISM' in comparison with the metaphorical model 'MECHANISM IS A MAN', which are reversibly related.
Objectives: a) analysis of frequency of the studied lexical categories, representing a conceptual model 'MAN IS A MECHANISM', revealing the productivity of metaphorical modeling of the analyzed lexical units; b) comparison of the degree of metaphorical productivity of the analyzed lexical units and frequency of their use in non-metaphorical contexts; c) comparison of the productivity of metaphorization of the reversible metaphorical models 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' and 'MAN IS A MECHANISM'.
Hypothesis: A metaphorical model 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' is a particular variation of a more general and a more efficient in the Russian linguistic world image model - the anthropomorphous one. The reversible model 'MAN IS A MECHANISM' is a later one. On this basis, we suppose that the model 'MAN IS A MECHANISM' is less active in the process of figurative cognition of the outside world and is less productive in comparison with the metaphorical model 'MECHANISM IS A HUMAN'.
By analyzing the productivity of metaphorization in formation of a conceptual sphere 'mechanisms are means of transportation' such term as 'a degree of metaphoricalness of linguistic representation of a conceptual sphere'
was introduced. This index is determined by the quantitative ratio of direct nominative and metaphorical meanings, representing events of a corresponding conceptual sphere and by their actualization in contexts. Degree of meta-phoricalness is an aggregate of textual relevance of all metaphorical models of this conceptual sphere, along with that metaphorical model may be of different degree of productivity [12: 60-73].
In this article we, by means of studying a degree of metaphoricalness of the reversible metaphorical model 'MAN IS A MECHANISM', figure out some relative frequency of metaphor realization as well as their textual productivity. Our primary source is data from the Russian National Corpus (NRLC) [13].
Units of our analysis consist of predicative and non-predicative word-groups, which include certain parts of a mechanism, description of its distinctive features and actions.
The statistical analysis is conducted with respect to the total number of contexts, which include both metaphorical and non-metaphorical word-groups. E.g.:
1) podshipniki stupic (hub bearing) - is a non-metaphorical word-group, which includes two lexical items of direct meaning: 'A bearing part of revolving and pivoting mechanisms'; 'A central part of a wheel with spoke sockets and a hole for an axe' (The Great Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language); podshipnikov v zapyast'e (bearings in the wrist) - a metaphor (Nemnogo popisali - azh dym iz podshipnikov v zapyast'e pravoj ruki poshel / We wrote for a little while - so that even bearings in the right wrist started to smoke): in this word-group a lexical item 'zapyast'e' ('wrist') has a direct meaning, but the lexical unit 'bearings' is used metaphorically;
2) zapustit' zarzhavevshij motor (to start a rusty engine) - is a non-metaphorical saying, components of which have a direct meaning ('scaly with rust (maroon coating on iron)'; 'an engine (combustion or electrical)' (The Great Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language); a metaphor skripya zarzhavevshimi sustavami (wheezing rusty joints) (Ya sovershenno prodrog u pogasshego kostra i podnimayus' s brevna, skripya zarzhavevshimi sustavami /1 am totally frozen sitting by the dead fire and I am standing up from the log wheezing my rusty joints): the first component 'zarzhavevshie' ('rusty') is used metaphorically, and the second one 'sus-tavy' ('joints') has a direct meaning. The holistic meaning of this word-group is to describe a human being through an image of a mechanism.
For the purposes of the study we have composed a list consisting of 26 lexical items of the Russian language, naming different parts of a mechanism, of its distinctive features, and actions - detal' (a part, detail), vintik (a small screw), porshen' (a piston), zarzhavet' (to rust out), tarahtet' (to rattle), glohnut' (to pack up, die), etc. By means of continuous sampling we have selected 52 205 contexts, representing the said lexical items, including
379 contexts of metaphorical interpretation. We have conducted a contextual analysis taking into account data from explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language (The Great Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language), The Great Explanatory Dictionary of Russian Verbs). Analysis of frequency ratio of lexical categories was conducted based on 'The Frequency Dictionary of the Contemporary Russian Language' [14]. The frequency of metaphorical contexts was identified by means of direct quantitative calculations and by comparing them with the general frequency of their use.
The term 'general frequency' of a lexical item is used to identify a number of use cases in direct meaning per one million of words of the Corpus, or ipm (instances per million words). This unit of frequency measurement is used worldwide and it makes the process of word frequency comparison in different dictionaries and in different corpora much easier. The point is that text selections, on the basis of which frequency is being calculated, may vary significantly in their size [Ibid].
Results
We identified 4 groups of analyzed lexical items by degree of their frequency. High frequency lexical units (ipm over 100) have not been identified among the analyzed lexical items. The second group of the most frequently used words includes items with ipm between 50 and 100, e.g. detal' (apart, detail) - 75.7 ipm.
Mid-frequency lexical items, such as: provod (a wire), rychag (a lever), zavodit' (to start a motor) share a common frequency of use with ipm between 15 to 50 per million words of the Corpus. Such lexical items as: tormoz (a break), rzhavyj (rusty), klapan (a valve), pruzhina (a spring), tormozit' (to slow down), vint (a screw), pedal' (a pedal), generator (a generator), gajka (a screw nut), bolt (a bolt), podshipnik (a bearing), zaglohnut' (to pack up, die), rzhavchina (rust), vintik (a small screw), porshen' (a piston) are characterized by low frequency (ipm between 3.4 and 14.7). Such words as: neispravnyj (defected), tarahtet' (to rattle), zarzhavet' (to rust out), sharnir (a joint, pivot), shesternya (a gear), zapravit'sya (to fuel), zar-yadit'sya (to charge, energize) are of some very low use frequency: between 0.4 to 2.7 million words of the Corpus (yet still better 0-1, 1-10...).
Analysis of metaphorical and non-metaphorical lexical contexts, representing the conceptual sphere "a human" through an image of a mechanism, identified that degree of productivity of metaphorical groups can be correlated with the general frequency of a lexical item, but cannot be entirely determined by it. To compare the degree of metaphoricalness and frequency of a lexical item, characterizing a human through such conceptual sphere as 'a mechanism', we took two key figures: general frequency of use of a lexical unit (ipm) and average frequency of use in metaphorical contexts per million words of the Corpus (ipm in metaphorical contexts).
Table 1 presents results of the metaphorical contexts analysis, assimilating the conceptual field "a human" to the conceptual sphere 'a mechanism'. The material is located to show successive decrease of the productivity degree of metaphorical modeling of these items.
The most frequent is the metaphorical interpretation of the lexical item 'zaryadit'sya (to charge, energize) with the average usage percent of the conceptual metaphor above 10 (16.7% of metaphorical groups per total number of contexts of the National Russian Corpus): vy "zaryadites'psihicheskoj 'ener-giej" (you 'will be charged with psychological energy'); on yavno sil'no zar-yadilsya kokainom (he was obviously charged with cocaine); zaryadilsya ot svoej dissertacii (he was charged from his dissertation); prilichno zar-yadivshijsya goryuchim (he was completely charged with booze); zaryadit'sya pischej na sutki (to be charged with food for a day), etc.
Lexical items with a high degree of metaphoricalness (average percent above 1) are: tarahtet' (to rattle), zapravit'sya (to fuel), neispravnyj (defected), zarzhavet' (to rust out), vintik (a small screw), sharnir (a joint, pivot), klapan (a valve), gajka (a screw nut), zavodit' / sya (to start a motor), zaglohnut' (to pack up, die), rzhavchina (rust): stala tarahtet'po-francuzski (she started to rattle in French); Ne dajte sustavam "zarzhavet'" (do not let your joints to rust out'); vashe zrenie neispravno (your vision is defected); v mozge odnogo takogo vintika ne hvataet (the brain lacks one small screw like that); Esli u vas nachali stuchat' klapana, buzit' aorta (If your valves started to make noises, your aorta became grumpy...); ruki i nogi horosho vraschalis' na sharnirah (the hands and legs were turning just fine in the pivots), etc.
A mid-frequency of metaphoricalness (between 0.5 and 1%) applies to the following lexical items: shesternya (a gear), rzhavyj (rusty), generator (a generator), pruzhina (a spring), rychag (a lever): shesterni kruzhilis', tam, pod cherepom (some gears were spinning under the skull); toj vlozhennoj v serdce kazhdogo cheloveka pruzhiny (by that spring, placed in each human's heart); Vy nastoyaschij generator pervoklassnyh idej (You are a true generator of first-class ideas!); Liza nachinala shevelit' rzhavymi mozgami (Liza began to use her rusty brains); montazhnye shemy muskulov i razlich-nyh kostnyh rychagov (mounting layouts of muscles and of different bone levers), etc.
Nonproductive lexical items from the point of metaphorical interpretation (average percent is less than 0.5) are: tormoz (a break), vint (a screw), tormozit' (to slow down), podshipnik (a bearing), porshen' (apiston), bolt (a bolt), pedal' (apedal), provod (a wire), detal' (apart, detail): sil'nee davilo v grudi, chto-to tam kolotilos' obezumevshim porshnem (the chest was under pressure, something inside was pounding there like a crazy cylinder); pod-shipniki moi snosilis' (my bearings worn out); mnogie "detali" nashego or-ganizma (many 'parts' of our body); otpustit' vnutrennie tormoza (to release
the internal breaks); zhit's obnazhennym provodom vnutri (to live with a naked wire inside), etc.
Average productivity of the lexical and semantic group is 0.73%.
T a b l e 1
Productivity of Metaphorical Modeling
Lexical item Total number of Number of meta- Productivity of
contexts phorical contexts metaphorization, %
1 zaryadit'sya (to charge) 72 12 16.667
2 tarahtet' (to rattle) 316 22 6.962
3 zapravit'sya (to fuel) 136 13 9.559
4 neispravnyj (defected) 654 61 9.327
5 zarzhavet' (to rust out) 320 29 9.063
6 vintik (a small screw) 637 33 5.181
7 sharnir (a joint, pivot) 302 7 2.318
8 klapan (a valve) 2 123 41 1.931
9 gajka (a screw nut) 1 195 14 1.172
10 zavodit' / sya (to start a motor) 3 923 55 1.402
11 zaglohnut' (to pack up, die) 885 10 1.130
12 rzhavchina (rust) 890 9 1.011
13 shesternya (a gear) 420 4 0.952
14 rzhavyj (rusty) 2 639 21 0.796
15 pruzhina (a spring) 2 998 21 0.700
16 generator (a generator) 1 646 11 0.668
17 rychag (a lever) 3 082 16 0.519
18 tormoz (a break) 2 197 9 0.410
19 vint (a screw) 2 931 9 0.307
20 tormozit' (to slow down) 1 742 5 0.287
21 podshipnik (a bearing) 803 2 0.249
22 porshen' (a piston) 876 2 0.228
23 bolt (a bolt) 1 131 1 0.088
24 pedal' (a pedal) 1 189 1 0.084
25 provod (a wire) 6 160 5 0.081
26 detal' (a part, detail) 12 938 9 0.070
52 205 379 0.726
The histogram (fig. 1) shows the ratio of a lexical item frequency in the aggregate of their meanings (lines on the left) and frequency of its realization in anthropomorphic metaphorical contexts (lines on the right), the numbers of the horizontal line correspond to the numbers of lexical items in table 1.
Table 2 presents results of an analysis related to the degree of metaphorical productivity and frequency of use of analyzed lexical items in non-metaphorical contexts. The material is located to show successive decrease of the productivity degree of use of the lexical items in metaphorical and non-metaphorical contexts.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Fig. 1. Ratio of the general productivity of a lexical item and anthropomorphic contexts of their actualization
T a b l e 2
Comparison of degree of metaphorical productivity and frequency of use of analyzed lexical items in non-metaphorical contexts
Frequency, ipm Functional productivity of metaphorical modeling, ipm
High frequency
detal' (a part, detail) 75.7 rzhavyj (rusty) 0.282
provod (a wire) 26.5 neispravnyj (defected) 0.252
rychag (a lever) 18.9 vintik (a small screw) 0.192
zavodit' / sya (to start a motor) 17.1 zarzhavet' (to rust out) 0.154
Mid-frequency
tormoz (a break) 14.7 tarahtet' (to rattle) 0.118
rzhavyj (rusty) 14.6 tormoz (a break) 0.117
klapan (a valve) 12.0 rychag (a lever) 0.098
pruzhina (a spring) 11.7 generator (a generator) 0.090
tormozit' (to slow down) 11.2 zapravit'sya (to fuel) 0.086
vint (a screw) 9.4 klapan (a valve) 0.084
pedal' (a pedal) 8.6 bolt (a bolt) 0.072
generator (a generator) 7.7 zavodit' / sya (to start a motor) 0.070
Low frequency
gajka (a screw nut) 5.2 zaryadit'sya (to charge) 0.067
bolt (a bolt) 5.1 pedal' (a pedal) 0.057
podshipnik (a bearing) 4.3 detal' (a part, detail) 0.053
zaglohnut' (to pack up, die) 4.2 zaglohnut' (to pack up, die) 0.047
rzhavchina (rust) 4.2 rzhavchina (rust) 0.042
vintik (a small screw) 3.7 pruzhina (a spring) 0.036
porshen' (a piston) 3.4 sharnir (a joint, pivot) 0.035
neispravnyj (defected) 2.7 tormozit' (to slow down) 0.034
tarahtet' (to rattle) 1.7 provod (a wire) 0.021
zarzhavet' (to rust out) 1.7 podshipnik (a bearing) 0.011
sharnir (a joint, pivot) 1.5 shesternya (a gear) 0.011
shesternya (a gear) 1.2 porshen' (a piston) 0.008
zapravit'sya (to fuel) 0.9 vint (a screw) 0.008
zaryadit'sya (to charge) 0.4 gajka (a screw nut) 0.006
5
4
3
2
0
The analysis has shown that the majority of lexical items are characterized by a proportional ratio of frequency degree in all kinds of meanings and in metaphorical contexts. For example: such low-frequency lexical items as gajka (a screw nut), podshipnik (a bearing), porshen' (a piston), shesternya (a gear), zaglohnut' (to pack up, die), sharnir (a joint, pivot) also have a low index of functional productivity of metaphorical modeling. Such mid-frequency lexical item as generator (a generator), tormoz (a break), klapan (a valve) are also moderately productive from the point of view of metaphorical interpretation.
However, individual lexical items are characterized by different indexes of frequency and functional productivity of metaphorical modeling.
For example, such high frequency lexical items as detal' (a part, detail), provod (a wire) are characterized by significantly low degree of metaphoricalness, while such low frequency lexical items as vintik (a small screw), zarzhavet' (to rust out), neispravnyj (defected).
The majority of the analyzed lexical items are characterized by a low frequency of use in non-metaphorical word-groups as well as in metaphorical ones.
A comparison of degree of metaphoricalness and frequency of use of lexical items naming parts and distinctive features of a mechanism revealed proportional criteria of relation of these terms to the major part of analyzed contexts. However, certain lexical items are characterized by completely opposite indexes of frequency degree and degree of metaphorical productivity.
Table 3 presents the results of an analysis of functional productivity of metaphorical modeling of lexical units, representing reversible metaphorical models: 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' and 'MAN IS A MECHANISM'. Data for functional productivity of the metaphorical model 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' were taken from the earlier published article: 'Anthropomorphic Metaphorical Interpretation of Conceptual Sphere 'Transportation Means' (Degree of metaphoricalness of conceptual sphere and productivity of a metaphorical model)' [12].
T a b l e 3
Comparison of functional productivity of metaphorical modeling of reversible metaphorical models 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' and 'MAN IS A MECHANISM'
Functional productivity of metaphorical modeling, ipm, 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' Functional productivity of metaphorical modeling, ipm, 'MAN IS A MECHANISM'
1 mashina (a machine) 1.638 rzhavyj (rusty) 0.282
2 avtomobil' (a car) 0.631 neispravnyj (defected) 0.252
3 tramvaj (a tram) 0.448 gajka (a screw nut) 0.192
4 gruzovik (a truck) 0.445 zarzhavet' (to rust out) 0.154
Functional productivity of metaphorical modeling, ipm, 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' Functional productivity of metaphorical modeling, ipm, 'MAN IS A MECHANISM'
5 vertolet (a helicopter) 0.336 tarahtet' (to rattle) 0.118
6 parohod (a steamship) 0.333 tormoz (a break) 0.117
7 parovoz (a loco) 0.33 rychag (a lever) 0.098
8 poezd (a train) 0.261 generator (a generator) 0.09
9 samolet (a plane) 0.258 zapravit'sya (to fuel) 0.086
10 'elektrichka (a commuter train) 0.253 klapan (a valve) 0.084
11 trollejbus (a trolleybus) 0.247 bolt (a bolt) 0.072
12 avtobus (a bus) 0.233 zavodit' / sya (to start a motor) 0.07
13 traktor (a tractor) 0.203 zaryadit'sya (to charge) 0.067
14 raketa (a rocket) 0.16 pedal' (a pedal) 0.057
15 kran (a crane) 0.153 detal' (a part, detail) 0.053
16 lift (an elevator) 0.126 zaglohnut' (to pack up, die) 0.047
17 kater (a motor boat) 0.101 rzhavchina (rust) 0.042
18 teplohod (a motor ship) 0.094 pruzhina (a spring) 0.036
19 motocikl (a motorcycle) 0.083 sharnir (a joint, pivot) 0.035
20 barzha (a barge) 0.051 tormozit' (to slow down) 0.034
21 teplovoz(a diesel loco) 0.046 provod (a wire) 0.021
22 'eskalator (an escalator) 0.033 podshipnik (a bearing) 0.011
23 krejser (a cruiser) 0.025 shesternya (a gear) 0.011
24 porshen' (a piston) 0.008
25 vint (a screw) 0.008
26 gajka (a screw nut) 0.006
Average mean 0.282 Average mean 0.0789
Based on the described data, our analysis of productivity of metaphorical modeling confirmed a tendency towards asymmetry of reversible metaphorical models 'MECHANISM IS MAN' and 'MAN IS A MECHANISM', which correlates to a tendency identified earlier and based on certain other material [7, 15].
A metaphorical model 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' is characterized by high metaphorical productivity as it is a certain variation of a more general and the most productive model in the linguistic worldview of the Russian language - the anthropomorphic one. A reversible model 'MAN IS A MECHANISM' is less active in the process of metaphorical modeling as it came to be later. However, it is necessary to mention that its productivity, based on the data from the National Russian Corpus, is increasing nowadays.
Conclusion
This study aimed to confirm or disclaim the thesis that the reversible metaphorical models 'MECHANISM IS A MAN' and 'MAN IS A MECHANISM' are productively asymmetrical.
The research findings confirmed not only the presented hypothesis, but also the existing opinion that anthropomorphism has a leading role in the cognitive process of learning the world [16: 35; 17: 7-8].
At the same time the acquired findings may become a part of more global research aimed at studying the interpretational potential of a conceptual sphere 'artifact', which unites mechanisms along with architectural and household artifacts.
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