CC BY
1528Persuasive techniques in advertising
by Irina D. Romanova and Irina V. Smirnova
Irina D. Romanova Moscow Aviation Institute id-vedenina@yandex.ru
Irina V. Smirnova Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) nomeolvides333@yandex.ru Published in Training, Language and Culture Vol 3 Issue 2 (2019) pp. 55-70 doi: 10.29366/2019tlc.3.2.4 Recommended citation format: Romanova, I. D., & Smirnova, I. V. (2019). Persuasive techniques in advertising. Training, Language and Culture, 3(2), 55-70. doi: 10.29366/2019tlc.3.2.4
The article explores persuasive techniques employed in commercial advertising and linguistic devices used to realise them. This study views persuasive techniques as features of rhetoric used for expressing logos, ethos and pathos. Depending on the principle of argumentation employed, the techniques are classified into three groups: those pertaining to logical reasoning (logos), those presenting a positive image of the company (ethos), and those involving the emotional component (pathos). The authors provide a detailed description of the persuasive techniques identified in the course of the research and single out the corresponding linguistic devices. The corpus of materials for the analysis comprises authentic commercials and original scripts of sample advertisements recommended for advertising agencies. Statistical frequency of persuasive techniques is elaborated to identify and describe the universal persuasive technologies used in advertising. Awareness of persuasive techniques improves the quality of advertising that affects the recipient's preferences and attitudes in a subtle way without limiting their freedom. The results of the study will prove useful for those involved in the advertising industry as well as for everyone interested in the issue.
KEYWORDS: persuasion, advertising, argumentation, ethos, logos, pathos, persuasive technique
S ®
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited (CC BY 4.0)
In the age of consumerism, the role of advertising should not be underestimated, be it in terms of developing business and international relationship, informing the society about new products and services, or drawing attention to crucial social issues. However, many people are critical of advertising as they feel it intrudes on their privacy and coerces them into buying unnecessary things, which is why marketing companies are challenged to convey their message in a subtle way without imposing their products on consumers. Ethically
1. INTRODUCTION
neutral persuasive techniques that respect the consumer's freedom of choice can be more efficient and elevate the advertising industry to a higher-quality level by making the potential buyer more receptive.
This study aims to identify and describe the most common persuasive techniques used in English-language commercials, classify them in
accordance with the principles of argumentation, and analyse the corresponding linguistic devices yielding the most efficient results.
© Irina D. Romanova, Irina V. Smirnova 2019
This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
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2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
The research is conducted within the framework of the lingua-pragmatic approach. The corpus for the analysis comprises a collection of 60 commercials (approximately 5964 words) and original scripts of sample advertisements compiled from the year 2000 onwards and recommended by a voiceover intermediary company Voices.com for advertising agencies. Quantitative data analysis provides insights into the occurrence of persuasive techniques in English-language advertising with the results of the study presented in graphs and charts.
3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Persuasion is a type of social interaction that attempts to influence and change attitudes in an atmosphere of free choice (Perloff, 2017). While persuasion refers to social influence which 'certainly seeks to achieve the goals of a person using it' (Mulholland, 2003, p. 14), it stands in stark contrast to manipulation or propaganda insomuch as it is ethically neutral, overt and can be withdrawn.
Research into the notion of persuasion goes back to ancient times when rhetoric gained popularity as the art of speaking. According to Aristotle (1926), rhetoric observes the available means of persuasive argumentation based on three main principles: logos pertaining to the rational appeal; pathos, or emotional argumentation, used to
'A persuasive technique is a complex set of linguistic tools employed to change attitudes and get responses without openly imposing any ideas on the recipient. In advertising, persuasive techniques are employed not so much to increase sales but rather to build rapport and raise brand awareness'
involve the audience; and ethos, or moral argumentation, presenting the speaker as a trustworthy person (Darics & Koller, 2018). Although the division seems clear on the surface, it might prove difficult to establish the boundaries between logos, ethos and pathos as in the course of persuasive interaction they overlap and co-exist. This means that the speaker could share their views in support of rational argumentation and build the atmosphere of emotional engagement at the same time (Cockcroft et al., 2014).
A persuasive technique is a complex set of linguistic tools employed to change attitudes and get responses without openly imposing any ideas on the recipient. In advertising, persuasive techniques are employed not so much to increase sales but rather to build rapport and raise brand
by Irina D. Romanova and Irina V. Smirnova
awareness. Young (2016) lists five principles of argumentation that are specific to the sales relationship and form the basis for persuasion in advertising:
• demonstrate the company's awareness and understanding of the consumer's needs;
• create a friendly and responsive environment to build rapport and demonstrate the responsible attitude to the consumer's expectations;
• demonstrate professionalism to show that the company is a worthy product or service
provider;
• create a desire to use the advertised product or service;
• provide evidence to explain how the product will benefit the consumer.
4. STUDY AND RESULTS
4.1 Classification of persuasive techniques in
advertising
The study distinguished 10 persuasive techniques in advertising expressing logos, pathos and ethos (Table 1).
Table 1
Classification of persuasive techniques on the basis of rhetorical principles
LOGOS
ETHOS
PATHOS
Appeal to rationality
Self-representation Appeal to authority
Seeking common ground Personal involvement Appeal to desires/preferences Appeal to state awareness Appeal to time awareness Appeal to benefit Flattery
The corpus subjected to analysis (approximately 5964 words) contains 1014 instances of persuasive techniques of which 82 refer to logos, 128 pertain to ethos and 804 to pathos. The following pie-chart presents their distribution with logos accounting for 8%, ethos for 13% and pathos totally outnumbering
the others with a massive 79% of the sample (Figure 1).
4.2. Persuasive techniques based on rational argument (logos)
Logos corresponds to the use of rational argumentation as a way of reasoning that the
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LOGOS 8%
79%
Figure 1. Frequency of occurrence of persuasive techniques referring to logos, ethos and pathos
receiver might accept. Sample analysis demonstrates that the logos-based persuasive technique appeal to rationality is explicated through tripling, and qualitative and quantitative signs.
Tripling introduces information in three-point lists which assumes all items are of equivalent value (Darics & Koller, 2018), which equally contributes to the expression of the idea as well as to preserving grammatical and structural integrity. In advertising, tripling expressing logos is used to give reasons while describing the advantages of the advertised product. In terms of cognitive science, three arguments (or four) have proved to
sound more persuasive than two or one. The following advertising letter illustrates cases of tripling.
Dear Reader,
New Business View multimedia magazine. How do today's business leaders keep up to date without trawling through hundreds of pages of newspapers and magazines? They rely on New Business View - the only digital multimedia magazine to bring you all the latest business news, trends and opinions on one handy, multi-format disk. Subscribe to NBV, and we guarantee you'll never need to buy another magazine! Be the first to know about mergers and takeovers, marketing
by Irina D. Romanova and Irina V. Smirnova
trends and management tools. Watch, listen and read, on DVD, in the car, or on your PC. NBV gives you a deeper understanding of the issues that matter, whoever you are, wherever you are and whenever you want. 'Better than an MBA' - NBV is your private briefing from the world's best business specialists. NBV is used by executives in leading companies, large, medium and small, all over the world. Over half of America's top business schools recommend it as part of their programmes. You too can enjoy a better view of the world of business. Subscribe now for twelve months or more and receive three issues totally free of charge. Just fill in the attached form or subscribe online at www.newbusinessview. com. Sincerely Yours, Jim Bradley PS Reply within fifteen days and get free access to NBV's new daily podcast! (Allison et al., 2009, p. 66).
Tripling is employed to describe the advantages of the advertised products and the benefits it could give to the potential audience:
There's no need to cut the lawn, shovel the driveway, or climb unnecessary stairs - you'll have more time, more energy, and more life! Those are just three great benefits of living at Green Gables (Voices.com).
Antonio's has fresh seafood, homemade pasta, and signature dishes sure to please, bringing you back
for more (Voices.com).
Our super-integrated technology makes it possible - giving you less weight, more power, more speed and more choice (Cockcroft et al., 2014).
Moreover, tripling often includes information which is able to contribute to positive evaluation of an advertised product:
We created the world's first, full line-up of powerful, portable computers. Because we know from experience that every user has different uses and needs. So, we've designed models ranging from notebook-sized laptops offering the maximum in portability to powerful office portables that are a match for any desktop (Cockcroft et al., 2014, p. 74).
Book discounted airfares, hotels, and your rental car all on our web- site, www.website.com. Website.com... Simple, inexpensive, and fast... Shouldn't everything in life be like this? (Voices.com).
Motivating utterances also sound more persuasive if they are arranged in three-item lists: (a) Attend keynote speeches, participate in workshops and learn more. This two-day event is only $300 and your meals throughout the day are included (Voices.com); (b) We're looking for musical acts and people to serve on several committees
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working behind the scenes. Come share your time, talent and treasure (Voices.com).
Qualitative and quantitative signs are used to present rational arguments, facts and figures to provide the audience with evidence in favour of the idea. An extract from a car advertisement shows several cases of quantitative signs.
So, here's what you tell the Financial Director. Firstly, the new Saab is a four-door, five-seater, family saloon. Don't mention the integrated aerodynamic skirts, alloy wheels, or exclusive badging. Secondly, inform him there is 23.8 cu. Feet of luggage space in the boot, but omit there's 195 b.h.p. 16-valves, and an all new turbo-charged power unit under the bonnet. Say that's it's quite nippy, and jolly safe when overtaking. But please leave out the 0-60 in 7.5 seconds, forget that it's faster than a Ferrari Mondial from 50 to 70 m. p. h. Oh, and mention the 38.1 m.p.g. Not the 140 m.p.h. (Cockcroft et al., 2014, p. 203)
Quantitative signs are presented in the description of the new Saab (23.8 cu, 195 b.h.p., 16-valves, 0-60 in 7.5 seconds, from 50 to 70 m.p.h., 38.1 m.p.g) which helps the audience understand why the advertised car is a good choice. In addition, the extract presents a case of tripling at the same time: Firstly, the new Saab is a four-door, five-seater, family saloon. Don't mention the integrated aerodynamic skirts, alloy wheels, or exclusive
badging.
Qualitative signs can be found in references to names of well-known places, companies, labels, breeds, etc.:
It's finally here! The Cat's Meow Tour has purred its way up to Marsha's Cove. We've got Abyssinians, British Shorthairs, Burmese, Chantilly kittens, Cornish Rexes, some splendid Egyptian Maus, Japanese Bobtails, Maine Coon Cats and many more! Did I mention our Russian Blues, Persians, Ragdolls and Pixie-Bobs? You won't want to miss this fine array of felines. Here's your personal invitation to join us at Bloomers Fairgrounds for an all-day event, from eight to six on Saturday November 12th. The Cat's Meow Tour, at Bloomers Fairgrounds, for one day only. Meoooowwww! (Voices.com).
This piece of text mentions different cat breeds which will be exhibited at the show being advertised. The mention of real characteristics of the upcoming show can provide a fair reason for visiting the place for people interested in cats. Qualitative and quantitative signs can be arranged in tripling sets. Apparently, both means of appeal to rationality are likely to be used within one persuasive text as they work at different levels: grammatical for tripling and lexical for qualitative and quantitative signs. The following examples show more cases of the combined use of tripling
by Irina D. Romanova and Irina V. Smirnova
'Logos corresponds to the use of rational argumentation as a way of reasoning that the receiver might accept'
and qualitative and quantitative signs:
Shelly's Interiors has a wide array of styles in their portfolio to choose from, including Modern Chic, Urban Elegance, and Rural Escape (Voices.com).
When you plan your honeymoon, don't just book the first flight to Tahiti... surprise your beloved with an unforgettably romantic getaway to one of the great European capital cities. Experience the finest that Paris, Rome, Madrid, and Athens have to offer (Voices.com).
4.3. Persuasive techniques in advertising based on moral arguments (ethos)
Ethos, which is responsible for the moral aspect of the process of persuasion, is represented by persuasive techniques of self-representation and appeal to authority. The former pertains to the notion of corporate image which is the perception outsiders have of an organisation. In advertising, this technique aims to present the company as a group of people or a team sharing the same positive attitude to their product or service. This opinion normally sounds trustworthy, what with it being shared by a group of people. Self-
representation is usually expressed by the personal pronoun we (us) or the possessive pronoun our as in the following examples:
Looking for a new set of wheels but have to trade in your old ones first? Check out Austin's number one automotive buy and sell online at www.website.com. We've got cars of all shapes and sizes listed on the web including vintage cars, family vans, and sports cars! (Voices. com).
We can open doors on your behalf. Whether you want great days and nights out with your friends and family, a bit of peace and quiet before you leave the airport or entrance to an exclusive shopping event, we can make it happen (Darics & Koller, 2018, p. 76).
Our super-integrated technology makes it possible - giving you less weight, more power, more speed and more choice. We call them the First Family of Portables. And everyone is as individual as you are. Call in at your local Toshiba dealer and see which portable computer we've designed for you (Cockcroft et al., 2014, p. 203).
The other feature which is typical of self-representation is the use of lexis referring to the company's experience and proficiency:
Business travel at the speed of your fax machine... is that even possible?! Zip around the country in
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'Ethos, which is responsible for the moral aspect of the process of persuasion, is represented by persuasive techniques of self-representation and appeal to authority'
your own personal jet, complete with a licensed pilot and hors d'oeuvres to keep you on top of your game (Voices. com).
Sip on the finest of teas poured by expert servers in traditional kimono and participate in an authentic Japanese Tea Ceremony that you'll always remember (Voices. com).
If your credit rating is making you and others around you cringe, there's only one thing to do, and that's to turn to the professionals at Creative Credit Solutions (Voices. com).
Our team of professionals at Global Transact House and Home will raise and nurture your investments as if they were their very own. We're very protective of our young! (Voices. com).
The last example illustrates the use of a personal and a possessive pronoun as well as specific lexis for self-representation. Although we is normally used by companies for self-presentation, there are cases where the I is preferred. This way, the
advertisers present the company as a friend or an advisor who is having a private talk with the potential customer:
The more someone makes you think about your body, the harder it becomes to ignore. Your tongue, for example. Usually, you hardly notice it's there. But when I mention it, you can feel your tongue bumping against your lower front teeth... See how you can help at selfesteem.dove.co.uk. Dove. Be your beautiful self (Campaignlive.co.uk).
The second technique related to ethos is appeal to authority. It also deals with the moral aspect of persuasive argumentation. In this case, information is presented as shared knowledge thus creating the image of a competent and reliable company. From the cognitive perspective, appeal to authority is related to the formula everybody says U, which means that something is said as if it is a general truth or quotation (Herman & Oswald, 2014).
This effect is achieved through different ways of establishing authority, such as repetition, impersonal you statements, collective nouns, parallel constructions and statements with the formal subjects there or it:
Girls, I'm going to let you in on a little secret... It's not what you wear, it's how you wear it! That's why shopping at Miranda's Boutique on Fifth Avenue is so easy! (Voices.com).
by Irina D. Romanova and Irina V. Smirnova
People listen to them, they subscribe to them, and they love them... (Voices.com).
The more someone makes you think about your body, the harder it becomes to ignore (Campaignlive.co.uk).
Appeal to authority can also be expressed by direct quotations demonstrating that the advertisement is based on socially recognised statements:
An old Japanese proverb says that if a man has no tea in him, he is incapable of understanding truth and beauty. Suki's Tea Room offers a unique solution to those who seek truth, beauty and a strong cup of tea (Voices.com).
Have you been wondering what your special vocation is?... Take some time to listen to the Lord during 'A Come and See' weekend at St. Peter's Seminary. This weekend of spiritual reflection is open to men seventeen years of age and older... As Jesus said to Peter, 'Feed my sheep'. Are you being called to shepherd God's flock? Come and see (Voices.com).
Appeal to authority is also found when proper names referring to celebrities or other public persons are used:
And finally, whatever you do, don't say the new
CD was partly developed by Erik Carlsson, the legendary rally driver. Just explain that it's wholly favoured by Harry Dobson, the frugal company car manager (Cockcroft et al., 2014, 203).
Appeal to personal experience is another technique which also provides evidence in favour of the idea presented to the recipient. It functions in the following way. The speaker mentions his or her own experience of dealing with the advertised object that has been rather successful, which presupposes that the speaker has good reasons for recommending it to other people. The following example illustrates this technique at work:
Hi, my name is James, and I'm a podcastaholic. It all started with the MP3 player my darling and unsuspecting wife gave me for Christmas last year. First, it was a podcast about fishing. Yeah, fairly harmless, you would think. Then, I branched out into technology, sports, marketing, do it yourself projects, and a podcast about grammar of all things! My palette for this stuff is so acute and I'm learning so much (spoken aside: to the apparent dismay of darling dearest). Well, this year, I suspect she'll not be buying that new video one, but that doesn't mean I can't get it for the kids! Get your MP3 player this holiday season by logging onto www.website.com(Voices.com).
This piece of advertising information is transmitted by an allegedly satisfied customer who introduces
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himself at the beginning, tells his story and goes on to share his positive experience of the use of MP3 players. Appeal to authority or personal experience overlap with rational argumentation as evidence given by customers in favour of the advertised product can be referred to rational reasoning.
4.4 Persuasive techniques based on emotional involvement (pathos)
This group comprises 7 techniques each targeting a particular emotional component. Most of the techniques referring to pathos correlate with Brown and Levinson's (2014) politeness universals, as they are aimed at maintaining rapport so that the recipient feels valued and respected, their position acknowledged and their preferences taken into consideration.
Seeking common ground is used to indicate that the recipient belongs to the social group where specific wants, goals and values are shared (Brown & Levinson, 2014, p. 103). This can be achieved by means of colloquial language (or in-group language) and address forms (in advertisements the potential consumer is always addressed as you), by contraction and ellipsis, by deixis and indicators of possession. The following examples demonstrate how seeking common ground functions.
Do you wake up every morning and show up looking like your mommy dressed you? You're
nearly a grown man! It's not exactly the image you want to have, is it? Well, mom can scratch that chore off her list when you tell her that you'll be buying your own clothes from now on by yourself at Crawford's Menswear (Voices. com).
This example contains the address form you and instances of colloquial language (mommy, well..) which reduce the distance between the advertiser and the prospective customer as if they were close friends. The deictic now also contributes to claiming common ground as it allows the presenter to include the communicants in the speech event by indicating their special and temporal location.
Ever heard of a podcast? People listen to them, they subscribe to them, and they love them... as a business, doesn't that sound like something that you'd like to be a part of? Well, you can when you hire the podcast pros at Podcast Princess Productions (Voices.com).
In this example, ellipsis creates a friendly atmosphere and serves as an in-group marker.
Girls, I'm going to let you in on a little secret... It's not what you wear, it's how you wear it! Voices.com).
Here, common ground is stressed by the in-group usage of the address form girls indicating that this
by Irina D. Romanova and Irina V. Smirnova
piece of advertising information is 'a little secret of us/girls'.
Self-involvement is used to demonstrate the speaker's contribution, which intensifies the interest of the recipient. The advertised company creates an image of a particular speaker, who is likely to be presented as a friend, advisor or a teacher who not so much informs the audience about the advertised product or service but rather gives their evaluation of it and shows their attitude. The company presenting a product in an advertisement aims to describe its performance in a positive light to persuade the audience of the value of their product. Self-involvement can be found in lexis, providing positive evaluation (powerful office portables, exclusive badging), contrast or comparative structures intensifying the quality of the advertised product (food just like mamma used to make), intensifiers and comparatives, (most, only, all, at least, very...), metaphors (spread your wings in our friendly and tranquil worship environment), and hyperbole (within hours, your home will be transformed to reflect your tastes). Example:
Our team of professionals at Global Transact House and Home will raise and nurture your investments as if they were their very own. We're very protective of our young! (Voices.com).
Appeal to desires is used to point out the possible
preferences the recipient may have and demonstrate that the speaker has taken them into consideration. In advertising, the desires mentioned usually sound general. They point to things which most people would be happy to possess. At the cognitive level, mention of such preferences raises the desire to get them which results in an increased interest in the advertisement itself. Appeal to desires is generally realised with the help of lexis denoting feelings or wants and can be found in questions and clauses of cause:
Poulton's After Dinner Mints. What a ridiculous name! They're not after dinner mints, they're during the morning, after lunch, before going out, while watching TV mints. Whenever you feel like a cool, chocolatey mint, Poulton's are the ones (Rimmer & Vinogradova, 2013, p. 5).
Want a sneak peek of the new Honda CRV Black Edition? (Campaignlive.co.uk)
Flattery is aimed at praising the recipient in order to create a positive environment to introduce the advertised object. Flattery can be found in utterances indicating that the recipient is special for the company:
Here's your personal invitation to join us at Bloomers Fairgrounds for an all-day event, from eight to six on Saturday November 12th
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(Voices.com).
We call them the First Family of Portables. And everyone is as individual as you are. Call in at your local Toshiba dealer and see which portable computer we've designed for you (Cockcroft et al., 2014, p. 74).
Appeal to state awareness is also related to the potential consumer's feelings about the received message. This technique makes the recipient aware of a certain state that is considered necessary to understand the transmitted information. The implied state usually creates a positive background for introducing the advertised product:
The more someone makes you think about your body, the harder it becomes to ignore. Your tongue, for example. Usually, you hardly notice it's there. But when I mention it, you can feel your tongue bumping against your lower front teeth. The tip's just resting on them. You notice your tongue feels just a little too long for your mouth. And you notice it never really lies still. You move it about constantly, without thinking about it. Backwards and forwards. And from side to side. Suddenly, it feels strangely wet and heavy in your mouth, doesn't it? A few seconds ago, you hardly noticed your tongue. But just one message ensured you can't stop thinking about it. Now imagine the hundreds of messages girls are exposed to every day, subtly changing the way
they think about their bodies. See how you can help at selfesteem.dove.co.uk. Dove. Be your beautiful self (Campaignlive.co.uk).
This text obtained from the Campaign business journal shows that appeal to awareness of one's personal state can be realised by lexis linked to senses or feelings.
Appeal to time awareness aims to motivate the potential customer to respond to the advertisement as soon as possible. To do this, the advertisement points out that there is a reason for acting without delay (for example, a time limit set for a bargain). Drawing the recipient's attention to the necessity of being in a hurry is likely to induce them to react. As for lexical tools, this persuasive technique is achieved through the use of deictic markers of time (now, today) and words referring to time (adverbs of frequency, numerals, etc.):
Now is the time to get yourself to Valley View, by car, on foot, or even by air to take advantage of this outrageous sale - you'd better get here quickly, 'cause this promotion is only going on for 24 hours and the automobiles are leaving the lot faster than you can say 4-wheel drive! (Voices. com).
Early bird tickets are selling fast for this Black-Tie event so make sure that you take down this phone number in order to secure your table! Ready? Dial 555-7812 to reserve your table now (Voices. com).
by Irina D. Romanova and Irina V. Smirnova
'Most of the techniques referring to pathos correlate with Brown andLevinson's (2014)politeness universals, as they are aimed at maintaining rapport so that the recipient feels valued and respected, their position acknowledged and their preferences taken into consideration'
Providing reasons for reacting quickly usually implies that there is a possibility for the recipient to miss their chance:
A limited number of tickets will be available at the door, so order in advance to secure your table and save! (Voices. com).
Spaces are limited! Go online now to www.website.com to reserve your seat or call tollfree to register (Voices.com).
Appeal to benefit is also used to indicate that taking the proposed course of action is in the recipient's best interest, which increases their emotional involvement. Quantitative signs referring to discounts or other lexical indicators of a special price or conditions serve as means of appealing to benefit:
Always wanted to get your MBA? What's the hold up? If it's tuition fees, let me tell ya, do I have a deal for you. At Gerard's MBA Institute, we've just slashed the entrance fee by 50%! (Voices. com).
Call 555-5555 or visit www.website.com for your free sample today (Voices. com).
4.5 Statistics on the use of persuasion techniques in advertising
The bar chart below demonstrates the frequency of the described techniques (Figure 2). Study results show that most of the persuasive techniques identified in the course of the research pertain to pathos, proving that the role of the emotional component is essential to advertising. The bar chart shows that seeking common ground and personal involvement (both rely on pathos) outnumber the other persuasive techniques observed in advertising. The other techniques responsible for emotional involvement (appeal to desires, appeal to time-awareness, appeal to personal experience, flattery, appeal to benefit, appeal to state awareness) are much lower in frequency. The occurrences of self-representation and appeal to authority, corresponding to ethos, are almost equal in number.
5. DISCUSSION
Taking into account the statistics obtained in the course of the analysis it is fair to state that seeking common ground and personal involvement are
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Figure 2. Quantitative representation of persuasive techniques found in commercials
key to most advertisements.
Ethos and pathos usually overlap and are equally employed in persuasive argumentation. The following example demonstrates the use of a combination of persuasive techniques: We'll get you in. There are some gig, movies, store sale and other events that are just too good to miss. Tell us where you'd like to be and we'll get you in. Going travelling? We'll get you lounge
access, away from the hustle and bustle of the airport (Darics & Koller, 2018, p. 79).
This commercial, advertising an airline, starts with self-representation, seeking common ground and personal involvement techniques using the personal pronoun we to present the company, the personal pronoun you to address the recipient, and the future tense to give a promise. Both ethos and pathos are involved. The next sentence
by Irina D. Romanova and Irina V. Smirnova
illustrated all argumentative principles at work. The construction there are expresses appeal to authority, appeal to rationality is expressed through tripling (some gig, movies, store sale and other events). These are combined with personal involvement, which creates a positive attitude by means of the comparative 'other events that are just too good to miss'. The effect of personal involvement is intensified by repetition of the promise 'we'll get you in' throughout the text. The other technique related to pathos in the commercial analysed is appeal to desires which is expressed in the question 'Going travelling?', the elliptical character of which also manifests seeking common ground. To achieve the desirable effect in advertising one needs to employ combinations of persuasive techniques maintaining a balance between the ethos, logos or pathos components of argumentation. Linguistic means used to realise the techniques are also important: for instance, tripling should be considered a universal way of presenting ideas due to its ability to combine with other means, for example positive lexis, qualitative signs, the imperative mood, etc.
The effect of persuasive techniques could be different as it largely depends on the appeal to different personal types. The evaluation of advertising can differ for certain individuals. Common ground and personal involvement are universal in this sense as they aim at reducing the distance and creating a positive environment.
Appeal to rationality can be considered an ethically neutral technique used to support logical reasoning. Appeal to benefit and time awareness are found to be the most uneasy techniques in terms of persuasion as they may sound motivating for some people, while others regard this technique as an attempt to coerce them into doing things they didn't intend to do. Appeal to desires is also tricky as its impact depends on the nature of needs and preferences mentioned. Therefore, this technique actually proves effective only if the potential consumer believes that the commercial meets at least some of the needs that are important to them.
6. CONCLUSION
A persuasive technique is described as a complex set of linguistic tools which help change the customer's attitudes and receive their response without imposing on them. A careful analysis of the corpus of materials comprising commercials and sample advertisements allowed to distinguish 10 basic persuasive techniques. Depending on what principle of argumentation is employed (logos, ethos or pathos), the techniques are classified into three groups. As ethos, logos and pathos overlap and co-exist in the course of persuasive interaction, it can be difficult to establish the boundaries between them. To achieve the desirable effect in advertising it is necessary to employ combinations of persuasive techniques to maintain a balance between the ethos, logos or
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pathos components of argumentation. To achieve the desired impact, it is also essential to be aware of different types of consumer types. Seeking common ground and personal involvement are
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