CC BY
57
шое число жителеи средневековых городов и замков состояли на госу- ш х дарственной службе или на службе у хозяина (представители
закона, чиновники, охранники, слуги). Также надо обратить внимание на 1
то, что в средневековье была развита сфера развлечений, на что указыва- о
ет многочисленность лексем из тематической подгруппы «шуты». ©
Библиографический список
1. Чахоян Л.П., Иванова И.П., Беляева Т.М. История английского языка. СПб., 1990.
2. Яндекс. Перевод. URL: https://translate.yandex.ru/ (дата обращения: 20.04.2015).
3. British Library. Learning Medieval Realms. Church. URL: http://www.bl.uk/ learning/histcitizen/medieval/thechurch/church.html (дата обращения: 20.04.2015).
4. Middle English Compendium. Middle English Dictionary. URL: http://quod.lib. umich.edu/m/med/ (дата обращения: 20.04.2015).
5. Online Etymology Dictionary. URL: http://www.etymonline.com/ (дата обращения: 20.04.2015).
6. Pounds N. The Medieval city. London, 2005.
7. Online Etymology Dictionary. URL: http://www.etymonline.com/ (дата обращения: 20.04.2015).
8. Pounds N. The Medieval city. London, , 2005.
9. Religious Hierarchy in Medieval Times. URL: http://www.hierarchystructure. com/religious-hierarchy-in-medieval-times/ (дата обращения: 30.03.2015).
10. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. URL: http://www.poetryintranslation.com/ PITBR/English/GawainAndTheGreenKnight.htm/ (дата обращения: 20.04.2015).
А. Либерман
Принцип Оккама в этимологии: англ. qualm и нем. Qualm
Этимологам часто приходится иметь дело с несколькими, как кажется, одинаково вероятными гипотезами. В этих случаях словари предпочитают сохранять нейтралитет и предлагают специалистам самим делать выбор. Но иногда одно из логически приемлемых решений содержит необязательный («лишний») ход и на этом основании должно быть отвергнуто (принцип Оккама). Именно так обстоит дело с этимологией слова qualm, первоначально значив-
ф шего 'густой дым; тошнота'. Оно было заимствовано в ранненовоанглийский из ^ нижненемецкого; там оно было заимствовано с севера и значило примерно то же, что в английском. Есть все основания полагать, что существительное qualm 3 родственно глаголу quellan 'бить струей, вырываться облаком'; -m - древний суффикс. Но у немецкого слова Qualm имелся почти полный синоним twalm (из dwalm), родственный глаголу dwellan, а в немецком языке /kw/ (/kv/) иногда восходит к /dw/ (/tv/). Возникает вопрос, действительно ли qualm родственно глаголу quellan или начальная группа /kv/ возникла в нем из /tv/. Второе решение предполагает необязательный (добавочный) ход и, скорее всего, должно быть отвергнуто в соответствии с принципом Оккама.
Ключевые слова: английский язык, немецкий язык, этимология, происхождение, реконструкция, лексикография.
The first etymological dictionaries of modern European languages were written about four centuries ago. Everything in the study of etymology has changed since the early fifteen-sixties, the greatest change being perhaps the scholars' attitude toward their subject. It would not have occurred to Helvigius1 or Minsheu2, the first lexicographers who risked compiling etymological dictionaries of German and English, to list a word and supply it with the verdict "Origin unknown." Even Ménage3, who was incomparably better informed about the history of the Romance languages than Helvigius and Minsheu were about German and English, preferred the most fanciful derivations to the admission that he had no idea of his words' prehistory. (Helvigius and Minsheu, especially Helvigius, enjoyed relatively little popularity in their days, while Ménage's fame spread far and wide, and in the eyes of posterity his adventurous guesses partly eclipsed his serious achievements.)
The boldness of the pioneers of modern lexicography stemmed from their inexperience and the absence of tradition.They had no fear of making mistakes and inviting the criticism that, with regard to etymology, tended to become more and more virulent as time went on. Soon the number of authorities increased, and one could occasionally make do with offering a safe alternative or simply listing the predecessors' hypotheses instead of venturing a new one.Thus, Stephen Skinner4, the author of the second etymological dictionary of English, sometimes chose to be noncommittal bysimply adding his tentative opinion to
1 Andreœ Helvigius. Origines dictionvm germanicarvm.... Hanoviœ: Impensis Conradi Eifridi, 1611 (I had access only to the 1620 edition or reprint).
2 Minsheu J. [a. k. a. Minshœus]. Ductor in linguas.The Guide into the Tongues.... London, 1617.
3 Gilles Ménage [a. k. a. Menagius]. Dictionnaire étymologique ou les origines de la langue Françoise.. Paris, 1694.
4 Skinner S. Etymologicon Linguœ Anglicanœ. Londini: Typis T. Roycroft, 1671.
the few others of which he was aware. The same tendency comes to the fore in x an excellent but, naturally, outdated work by Junius1, an incredible erudite and 11 the founder of Germanic philology, while Gottfried Leibnitz, who did not write 1 an etymological dictionary but was greatly interested in the origin of words, | did not shirk polemic. Later authors, such as Henry Todd (the editor of Samuel © Johnson's dictionary), Charles Richardson, and Joseph E. Worchester, all three distinguished actors in the field of English lexicography2, often restricted themselves to a list of previous suggestions, without pushing their own ideas (in most cases, they had none).
Before the discovery of sound laws, when philologists sought the etymons of English and German in Hebrew and Greek, it was not particularly difficult to find in old texts some more or less plausible look-alikes that matched modern words. Additionally, there have always been self-taught people who thought that the source of all languages or the language that interested them was not Hebrew or Greek but rather Dutch or Irish. They too had little trouble finding promising etymons, but their activities pushed them to the fringe of philology or even had nothing to do with scholarship and need not interest us.A search for a limited number of roots that allegedly produced all the words of all languages belongs with other endeavors by delusional individuals. Etymology has attracted lunatics at all times; strangely, many of them were medical doctors. By way of apology, it should be said that for centuries all people whom we might call linguists and historical linguists were self-taught.
Once etymology left its infancy (and that happened only thanks to Jacob Grimm and his followers), linguists, for some time stille largely self-taught, began to look for cognates rather than look-alikes. Some words, it turned out, had questionable related forms (that is, such as failed to meet all the phonetic and semantic requirements) or seemingly none at all. Both inspirational and untenable guesses multiplied, while disagreement and rancor became the norm. Also, in stark contrast to their seventeenth- and eighteenth-century predecessors, scholars began to feel fearful that they missed some important publications in their area. More and more often notes opened with a disclaimer of the type: "My idea is so simple that I cannot imagine that it has not occurred to someone before me."
Those shows of modesty were, as I now know, not gratuitous. In 2008 I brought out a massive bibliography of English etymology, a byproduct or the
1 Francisci Junii Francisci filii. Etymologicum Anglicanum... edidit Edwardus Lye. Oxonii: E Theatro Sheldoniano, 1743.
2 Johnson S. A Dictionary of the English Language. 2nd ed., by H. J. Todd. London, 1827; Richardson C. A New Dictionary of the English Language, Combining Explanation with Etymology. London, 1837 (I had access to the 1858 edition); Worcester J.E. A Dictionary of the English Language.. Philadelphia, 1860.
^ basis of my etymological dictionary1 and discovered that certain hypotheses S had indeed been put forward multiple times and that some good guesses lay 8 buried unnoticed in long-forgotten fugitive periodicals, chance foot- and 3 endnotes, and in the papers whose titles could not attract the attention of the most assiduous investigators, though in the Grimms' Germany and perhaps a decade or two later active philologists seem to have read and remembered everything written by their colleagues. Sigmund Feist himself, a veritable miracle of omniscience and the author of an unsurpassed Gothic etymological dictionary2, missed a few books that could have stood him in good stead.
Two possibilities for escaping the impasse offered themselves. A responsible scholar could offer a catalog of conjectures, classify them (some were obviously wrong, some carried little conviction, and some held out enough promise to be examined in detail) and in the end remain noncommittal. Or all the suggestions failed to such an extent that the only honorable way out would be to concede defeat and write: "Origin unknown." To be sure, there was a third option: not to include a word in a dictionary and thus cover up one's ignorance. But that option does not apply to all situations. In dealing with the corpora of dead languages, such as Hittite, Sanskrit, Classical Greek, Latin, Gothic, and even Old Icelandic (the latter is not "dead" in the same sense as are Old English [OE] or Old High German [OHG]), the lexicographer is not expected to miss a single item, however obscure. Most people will agree that no etymology is better than a wrong one. Yet the unassailable verdict "origin unknown" brings little joy.
Not only such general dictionaries as Webster's International3 but also special ones, like ODEE4, often resort to the formula "origin unknown." This formula disguises several situations. There are indeed words that come in from the cold and refuse to reveal their past. Such is a good deal of slang. For example, it has taken an amazing amount of effort to discover the origin of shyster and of the phrase hot dog5. Reading dialectal dictionaries and glossaries sometimes leaves the impression that one is dealing with a foreign
1 Liberman A., with the assistance of J. Lawrence Mitchell. An Analytic Dictionary of English Etymology: An Introduction. Minneapolis, London, 2008; Liberman A., with the assistance of Ari Hoptman and Nathan E. Carlson. A Bibliography of English Etymology. Minneapolis, London, 2010.
2 Feist S. Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der gotischen Sprache. 3rd ed. Leiden, 1939.
3 Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language. Three editions were published in Springfield, MA by G. & C. Merriam Company in 1909, 1934, and 1961. This tradition is now being continued online.
4 The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology / C.T. Onions, ed., with the assistance of G.W.S. Friedrichsen and R.W. Burchfield. Oxford, 1966.
5 See the books by Gerald L. Cohen. Origin of the Term Shyster and Origin of the Word Shyster: Supplementary Information. Forum Anglicum. V. 12, 13. Frankfurt am Main, 1982, 1983, and Cohen G.L. Origin of the Term "Hot Dog." Rolla, MO, 2004.
language. The etymology of many vernacular words has never been probed. ^ x
Not surprisingly, it remains unknown. Yet quite often, the origin of the word
less impenetrable than the compilers and editors of dictionaries make it appear. ¡
I can once again refer to my bibliography. My team of paid assistants (mainly | undergraduates) and volunteers looked through thousands of pages of popular © journals and specialized English periodicals in search of articles, footnotes, and chance observations on the origin of English words, along with their certain and alleged cognates. A few more qualified people searched German, Dutch, and Scandinavian periodicals for similar clues, but most books (miscellanies and Festschriften) and journals in languages other than English, especially in the Romance and Slavic languages, I had to screen myself. As a result, we amassed a huge database; the work continues, and the database grows at the rate of about five to six hundred items a year. It turned out that many riddles have been solved but the solutions remain undiscovered by those who wrote etymological entries for established dictionaries. It means that the origin of some words is unknown to lexicographers, which is not quite the same as just unknown! Finally, one encounters cases that fall under the denomination of an embarrassment of riches: several good possibilities present themselves, and it is unclear which of them should be preferred. The present note is devoted to one of such cases. It concerns the Modern English word qualm and its German analog Qualm.
The earliest citation of qualm in the OED is dated to 1530. In the sixteenth century and some time later, qualm meant 'a sudden fit, impulse, or pang of sickening, misgiving, despair; a fit or sudden access of some quality, principle, etc., a sudden feeling or fit of faintness or sickness'. The first sense is still alive. Nowadays, the plural occurs more often, as in qualms of conscience, I had no qualms about..., and the like; only figurative senses are extant. As we will see, the so-called ultimate, or distant,etymology of qualm poses no problems because its Germanic root is easy to detect, but, when a word belonging to the native stock surfaces so late (in this case we have no Old English or Middle English form), the suspicion is strong that we are dealing with a borrowing from another language, and indeed, qualm seems to have reached English from Low German. The arguments for the word's belonging to the native stock will be given later.
The German cognate (or source) sounds also as Qualm (the capital letter is a mere concession to German orthography) and means '(a thick) smoke, vapor', but its first recorded sense was 'daze, stupefaction'. Surprisingly, on German soil we find ourselves in the same situation as before, for Qualm too appeared in texts only in the sixteenth century. It is still used mainly in northern and central German, while the southern word for "smoke" is Rauch, which is much better
^ known to students of German and from books than Qualm. Apparently, the S same conclusion must hold for it as for its English "twin." German researchers 8 (the relevant material can be found in any edition of Kluge's dictionary1) state 3 unanimously that their word came to Hochdeutch from the north, that is, from Low German. "(Thick) smoke" and "sickness, nausea" are not incompatible: the first can cause the second. "Stupefaction" must be a later sense, and it is close to "a sudden pang of sickness" found in English.
We have no way of deciding what gave the northern German noun such popularity in the early fifteen-sixties, but its diffusion is remarkable. Perhaps it was a word popularized by endless wars, so that qualm 'thick vapor' became part of international military usage. By 1599 at the latest, the word had stopped being a novelty in Dutch, for it appeared in Kilian's dictionary2 (possibly again borrowed from Low German3), and in the form kvalm it made its way to Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian. Scandinavian etymologists are unanimous in their belief that the word's source is Low German (I will dispense with references to the standard etymological dictionaries of the continental Scandinavian languages). Couldn't 'daze caused by a cloud of thick smoke'originate in dealing with some early firearms? Such conjectures are bound to remain guesswork. We can only feel certain about one piece of the puzzle: qualm (Qualm) existed in Low German before it turned up in texts (this is true of any word known from written tradition) and for a long time stayed there unnoticed by the speakers of other languages. Some analog might perhaps be the tragedy at Ypres. The word gas acquired its ominous meaning in connection with the first use of mustard gas ("yprite"). After April 1915 no one could remain ignorant of the new connotations of gas. Be that as it may, there must have been something special in the dense vapor called qualm and its dazing effects to attract the attention of so many speakers in the neighboring lands.
The information on the semantic history of Low German Qualm is meager, but Holthausen, a native speaker of the Soest dialect (Westphalia) recorded qualm 'a great quantity' (for example, of birds). He briefly discussed that form in a journal4 (the entry in his etymological dictionary of Old English5 is much poorer). He recorded the dialectal verb quullern 'to gush (out, forth)', a
1 Kluge F. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. Between 1883 and 2012 twenty-five editions appeared.
2 Cornelius Kilianus [a. k. a. Corneille Kiel]. Etymologicum teutonic® lingu®... Antwerpi®: Ex Officina Plantiniana, apud Joannem Moretum, 1599.
3 See this word in Jan de Vries. Nederlands etymologisch woordenboek / Ed. by F. de Tollenaere. Leiden, 1987.
4 Holthausen F. "Anglica." // Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift. 1951. № 32. S. 235.
5 Holthausen F. Altenglisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. 3rd ed. Heidelberg, 1974 (at cwiella)
likely cognate of OE collen 'swollen', known only as the first element of two ^ x compounds. The vowel u in quull-er-n represents the zero grade of the root 1 one finds in German quell-en 'to pour forth, stream', with its full grade (the 1 modern noun Quelle means 'spring, source'). It does not look like a too daring | hypothesis to reconstruct the initial meaning of this family as 'a mass of water © or vapor (smoke) rising to the surface'. This is how the sense of dialectal qualm 'a great quantity', with its reference to a flock of birds in the air, probably came into being.
Qualm, as noted above (with the promise to return to its chronology), was an old word. The proof is supplied by German Qual 'torment, pain, agony', the same word as Qualm but without the suffix -m. This suffix goes back to antiquity1 and stopped being productive even in Middle, if not Old High German. OE cwellan 'to kill', a congener but not the etymon of kill, continued into the modern language, though with a weakened meaning (quell 'to extinguish'). OE cwealm ~ cwelm, derived from the same root, meant 'pain, pestilence'. Obviously, even before Low German Qualm became an almost migratory word, the derivatives of the root qual- had at least sometimes unpleasant associations.
The question about the origin of qualm (or rather of its German etymon) seems to have been settled once and for all. This is the impression one gets, for example, from such a dependable source as The Century Dictionary (CD)2, with its detailed and careful etymologies. The entry lists OE cwealm 'death, slaughter, murder, destruction, plague, pestilence' (Middle English 'pestilence, death'), Old Saxon qualm 'death, destruction', as well as similar words in Old and Middle High German, and adds after the equal sign (=) German, Swedish, Dutch, and Danish homophones with the senses 'suffocating vapor, smoke, steam, nausea'. This creates the impression that Engl. qualm is a trivial reflex of OE cwealm and that 'vapor, smoke' is an unproblematic continuation of 'murder, destruction, etc.' One can also gather that the Scandinavian words are self-explanatory cognates of the English and German words. In stark contrast to CD, ODEE (see note 3, p. 66), which usually offers a digest of the OED, says: "qualm... feeling of faintness or sickness XVI; strong scruple of conscience. Of obscure origin; phonetically corresponding forms either have inappropriate meanings or cannot be historically connected: OE cwe(a)lm pestilence (rel[ated]to QUELL), M[iddle] L[ow] G[erman] quellem, G[erman] qualm (Du[tch] kwalm 'thick vapour or smoke'." (XVI refers to the century; German nouns are not capitalized in this dictionary; QUELL is a reference
1 Kluge F. Nominale Stammbildungslehre der altgermanischen Dialekte. Halle (Saale), 1926. Sec. 152.
2 The Century Dictionary..../ W.D. Whitney, ed.; Rev. ed. by Benjamin E. Smith. NY, 1911.
a word: a special entry is devoted to it.) Thus,"of obscure" rather than "of = unknown origin." Etymological dictionaries have developed numerous phrases S like "of obscure (unclear, uncertain, disputable)" origin and "remotely allied." 3 One is not quite sure what to make of them.
Yet the difficulty with qualm does not consist only in the fact that the oldest and the modern senses do not match. Apparently, at some time, perhaps around the turn of the sixteenth century, plague, destruction, and nausea became associated with smoke (or some kind of smoke) so closely that the original senses fell into desuetude and the new ones took over. However we may look at the history of Qualm in Low German, despite the rupture, the ancient and the new forms represent the same word. This is not an unusual phenomenon. In our memory, gay and queer stopped meaning "merry" and "odd." (Who would now say like Barrie in Peter Pen that children are gay, innocent, and heartless?) Yet neither should be characterized as a word of obscure etymology only on that account. The complications lie elsewhere. Alongside German Qualm (admittedly, from Low German) and Old Saxon qualm, we find its near doublet: OHG twalm "suffocating smoke; stupefaction." We have seen that OE cwealm has a solid etymology, regardless of whether OE collen 'swollen' is related to it (it probably is). But the same can be said about twalm!
Although twalm did not continue into Middle High German and lacks reflexes in the modern language, it has secure cognates in Old English and Old Saxon: dwalma 'chaos' and dwalm 'error' respectively. In this context, 'stupefaction' and 'stupidity' figure prominently in Old English and German, as evidenced by OE dol 'foolish', dwol 'heretical', dwolian 'go astray', dwolman 'one who is in error; heretic', and several compounds like dwolgod 'false god, idol'. Modern Engl. dull is a borrowing of the cognate Middle Low German dul. All those words, along with German toll 'mad, crazy', are related to the verb dwell, from dwellan 'to go astray, lead astray, deceive'. How dwell 'to live' (cf. the noun dwelling) and 'stay in one place' (cf. "Let us not dwell on this point") are connected with 'go astray; deceive' is a problem that need not delay us here1.
The relation of dwalm to dwellan makes the bond between qualm ~ Qualm and cwellan even more credible, but etymologists naturally wonder how to deal with the pair qualm / twalm, two almost interchangeable synonyms sounding strikingly alike. One more circumstance increases the confusion: in some Middle High German dialects, the group /tw/ became /kw/, with a few words having /kw/ from /tw/ present in the German Standard. Such are, for example, quer 'across' and the name of the milk product Quark, a borrowing of Slavic
1 See my dictionary (note 2, p. 65). P. 60-61.
tvorog1. (This change is typologically not uncommon. In English dialects, the x interchange between /tw/ and /kw/ has also been recorded: cf. kwenty 'twenty', 11 twill 'quill', and so forth2.) The question, naturally, arises whether German | Qualm is not a word like Quark, with /tw/ going back to /kw/. That is why | German scholars sit on the fence when it comes to explaining the etymology © of Qualm.
We have two choices: either kwalm is a dialectal variant of twalm or both words existed in the old language as independent entities. I suggest that we should prefer the second alternative, though my conclusion cannot be arrived at by purely logical means, that is, by weeding out wrong propositions. This is the picture as I see it. From the root cwell- (or kwell-) 'gush forth' the noun cwalm (kwalm, qualm) was derived. Its initial meaning must have been approximately 'a mass of fluid or vaporous substance rising (forcefully) to the surface'. Later, for the reasons beyond our scope of observation (though a surmise along the lines of Wörter und Sachen can probably be allowed), this noun acquired strong negative connotations, such as 'thick, suffocating smoke; nausea; torment; daze, stupefaction'. A parallel formation had no suffix -m (qual). The root dwell- yielded a similar-sounding noun, namely dwalm (twalm). Qualm and dwalm, we can assume, often got into each other's way (is this the reason why one of them disappeared?), but they were distinct and unrelated words. While in doubt about the etymology of qualm, we should make use of Occam's razor and not multiply moves unless necessary: the fewer superfluous assumptions are made, the better.
English borrowed qualm from Low German. The same seems to be true of High German Qualm and Dutch kwalm and is definitely true of the Scandinavian nouns mentioned earlier. Note the words highlighted in the preceding paragraph. Using Occam's razor does not allow us to choose the simplest proposed etymology, even though experience teaches that the more complicated an etymology, the higher the chance of its being wrong. People coin words using the requisite stock in trade, the material close at hand. The process of word creation is simple; it is reconstructing the mental and linguistic moves of the past that poses difficulties. However, there should be no misunderstanding: the simplest etymology offered by an amateur and even by a specialist can turn out to be sheer nonsense. Like every sharp instrument, Occam's razor should be applied with care. The twalm ~ kwalm dilemma is a case in point. We are faced with two equally reasonable hypotheses, but the second one (kwalm from twalm, like Quark from *twark) presupposes
1 Hermann P. Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik. 21st ed. by H. Moser and I. Schröder. Tübingen, 1976. Sec. 106.
2 The English Dialect Grammar / J. Wright, ed. Oxford, 1905. Sec. 242.
eu an extra move, which is superfluous and can therefore be avoided. Vendryes S spoke about l'étymologie croisée1, but his etymological interlace is restricted 8 to the cases in which the correct solution can be obtained by having recourse 3 to additional evidence. Occam's razor does its work in more "desperate" situations.
To finish this story on a lighter note, I will add that at one time the Modern Engl. verb quail 'to lose heart, falter, cower'was traced to OE cwelan 'to die' and cwellan 'to kill' (unless it was derived from the homonymous name of the bird2 - this is indeed a simple solution!). Hensleigh Wedgewood, who dominated the etymological scene in Great Britain before Skeat3, identified quail 'to falter' with quail 'to curdle' and traced it to Latin coagulare 'coagulate'. It is amusing to quote A. L. Mayhew, a good language historian and bellicose critic. With reference to those who treated cwelan and cwellan as the etymon of quail, he wrote: "It never seems to have occurred to these scholars that such an etymology is quite inadmissible, as the vowel sound of quail cannot be made to correspond with the original vowel of Old English cwelan or cwellan. Wedgwood did not care a brass button about phonetic laws, but he had a very keen sense for what is probable in the connection and the etymology of our word quail. He says: 'to quail, as when we speak of one's courage failing, is probably a special application of quail in the sense of curdle'.... It is the same word as Fr[ench] cailler, to curdle, coagulate, a sister form of which is Ital[ian] cagliare"4. Skeat resented Wedgwood's conjecture but later accepted it5. Many razors cut our vocabulary in preparing it for an etymologist's enjoyment, Occam's razor being only one of them.
Notes
1. Andreœ Helvigius. Origines dictionvm germanicarvm.... Hanoviœ: Impensis
Conradi Eifridi, 1611 (I had access only to the 1620 edition or reprint).
2. Century Dictionary../ W.D. Whitney, ed.; Rev. ed. by Benjamin E. Smith. NY,
1911.
3. Cf. the first (1882) and the last (1910) editions of Walter W. Skeat's. An
Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Oxford.
4. Cohen G.L. Origin of the Term "Hot Dog." Rolla, MO, 2004.
1 Vendryes J. "Sur l'étymologie croisée" // Bulletin de Société de Linguistique de Paris. 1955. № 51. P. 1-8.
2 Thomson S.J. Etymons of English Words. Edinburgh, 1826.
3 Wedgwood H. A Dictionary of English Etymology... London, 1859-1862. Subsequent eds.: 1872, 1878, and 1888.
4 Mayhew A. L."'To Quail' (To Lose Heart)" // The Academy. 1906. № 71. P. 141.
5 Cf. the first (1882) and the last (1910) editions of Walter W. Skeat's. An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Oxford.
5. Cornelius Kilianus [a. k. a. Corneille Kiel]. Etymologicum teutonicœ linguœ.. ^ x Antwerpiœ: Ex Officina Plantiniana, apud Joannem Moretum, 1599.
6. English Dialect Grammar / J. Wright, ed. Oxford, 1898-1905. Sec. 242. p
7. Feist S. Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der gotischen Sprache. 3rd ed. Leiden, ig 1939. °
8. Francisci Junii Francisci filii. Etymologicum Anglicanum... edidit Edwardus © Lye. Oxonii: E Theatro Sheldoniano, 1743.
9. Gerald L. Cohen. Origin of the Term Shyster and Origin of the Word Shyster: Supplementary Information. Forum Anglicum, vols. 12 and 13. Frankfurt am Main, 1982 and 1983.
10. Gilles Ménage [a. k. a. Menagius]. Dictionnaire étymologique ou les origines de la langue Françoise.. Paris, 1694.
11. Hermann P. Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik. 21st ed. by H. Moser and I. Schröder. Tübingen, 1976. Sec. 106.
12. Holthausen F. "Anglica." // Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift. 1951. № 32. S. 235.
13. Holthausen F. Altenglisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. 3rd ed. Heidelberg, 1974 (at cwiella).
14. Johnson S. A Dictionary of the English Language. 2nd ed., by H. J. Todd. London, 1827.
15. Kluge F. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. Between 1883 and 2012 twenty-five editions appeared.
16. Kluge F. Nominale Stammbildungslehre der altgermanischen Dialekte. Halle (Saale), 1926. Sec. 152.
17. Liberman A., with the assistance of Ari Hoptman and Nathan E. Carlson. A Bibliography of English Etymology. Minneapolis, London, 2010.
18. Liberman A., with the assistance of J. Lawrence Mitchell. An Analytic Dictionary of English Etymology: An Introduction. Minneapolis, London, 2008.
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