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УДК 81'34 Н. Б. Цибуля
кандидат филологических наук, профессор кафедры фонетики английского языка факультета ГПН МГЛУ; e-mail: cybnb@mail.ru
НЕВЕРБАЛЬНЫЕ, ВЕРБАЛЬНЫЕ И ПРОСОДИЧЕСКИЕ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКИ РЕЧИ В МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНОМ КОНТЕКСТЕ
Автор анализирует выражения классного обихода в контексте английской академической практики, сопоставляя ее с русской. Большое внимание уделяется просодической организации высказываний. В статье дается детальная интонационная разметка фраз классного обихода и комментируются возможные значения контекстуальной модальности. Опираясь на последние научные работы в сфере невербальности, исследователь выделяет основные невербальные стратегии преподавателя, чье речевое и невербальное поведение может способствовать усилению мотивации, а также улучшению результатов академической деятельности студентов.
Ключевые слова: выражения классного обихода; команда; просьба; предложение; просодия; невербальное поведение; жесты; плоскости исполнения жестов.
Tsibulya N. B.
Ph. D., Professor of the Department of English Phonetics, Faculty of Humanities and Applied Sciences of Moscow State Linguistic University; e-mail: cybnb@mail.ru
NONVERBAL, VERBAL AND PROSODIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH IN CROSS-CULTURAL CONTEXT
The author carries out analysis of English classroom language in native-speaker academic situation comparing it to Russian one. Great importance is attached to prosodic organization of utterances. The author gives detailed intonation marking of classroom clichés and comments on possible meanings of their contextual modality. Based upon recent studies in nonverbal sphere, the research provides basis for developing nonverbal strategies of the teacher which, together with his speech behaviour, can raise students' motivation and foster their academic performance.
Key words: classroom language; commands; requests; suggestions; prosody; nonverbal behaviour; gestures; planes of performing gestures.
The aim of the present research is to analyse differences in the use of classroom language by English and Russian teachers, including grammatical structures, lexis and prosody. In our analysis, based upon
Н. Б. Цибуля
recent studies in the sphere of nonverbal behaviour, we also consider nonverbal strategies of the teacher.
An English teacher has a number of various ways of controlling and directing students' activities. The most frequently used of these are imperative forms of speech which include commands, requests, and suggestions. In Russian TESOL academic practice these alternative ways usually operate as commands with the typical prosodic pattern of a falling tone at the end of the phrase, like "'Close your >books", "'Go to the vblackboard", "'Put 'down the 'new > words", etc. Commands can be also introduced by such verbs as expect, want, like, prefer, and have the following structures: "I expect /1 want /1 would like /1 (would) prefer you to write /copy /use /finish ...", etc. The command can be sometimes weakened by adding to it the words I'm afraid : "I'm a'fraid, you'll 'have to 'write the 'test a>gain ", or "You should 'use a>nother ,verb ,here, I'm a,fraid". It does not, however, change the direct and authoritative character of the command.
Russian teachers of English are apt to use the word please in a command: "'Be >quiet, ,please"; "'Sit >down, ,please"; "'Answer the > question, ,please", etc. But pronouncing please does not produce the same effect as the Russian word пожалуйста. The Russian counterpart is stronger and "more polite" than the English word please [1].
A command can be softened by use of "I think" and "perhaps", as in the following examples: "I 'think you should re'vise 'chapter \two" or "Per'haps you 'ought to con'sult a \dictionary".
Looking at commands in a broader social context suggests the idea of their rather restricted use in various spheres. They are quite common in military orders and some sports coaching where specificity of communication requires direct, short, and abrupt instructions pronounced with the falling tone. In other situations commands are uncommon.
Thus, the use of commands in the classroom of foreign learners of English does not correspond with their usage in a similar native-speaker situation and also gives a distorted pattern of their place in actual social interaction. Teaching polite requests is part of the syllabus and teachers are supposed to help students develop their competence using polite requests appropriately themselves. If they fail to do that, the typical native-speaker reaction is that they sound direct and impolite [4].
However, a command can be easily turned into a request by using a low (mid) rising tone, for example: "'Say it a/gain, 'Peter", "You are
to 1 finish the 1 exercise at /home", etc. One can add the word please to the request, the former being placed either at the beginning or end of the phrase. Pronounced at the end, it is part of a rising inflection, for example: " 1 Please, 1 study the /rule and 1 answer the /questions" or " 1 Study the 'rule and ' answer the /questions, 'please".
Russian students being used to direct commands of the teacher, are often puzzled by the fact that English teachers give them in an indirect way, in the form of a question. Russian students often understand it as if the teacher asked them about their wish to do something at the lesson. It may result in misunderstanding between the communicants and failure of interaction. However, requests in the form of a question are normally used by English teachers and contain such verbs as like and want and/or modal verbs will, would, can, and could: " ' Do you 'want to trans ' cribe the /word?"; " ' Would you ' like to ' do this /exercise?"; " ' Can you re/peat it?"; " ' Could you pro ' nounce it with a /fall-rise?"; " ' Will you ' close the /door?" The word please used in these requests usually comes before the verb or at the end of the phrase: " ' Could you 'please 1 listen to the /audio 'file?" or " Would you like to in tone the /text, 'please?" The initial position of please gives the utterance a rather formal character, for example: "'Please 'will you ' finish 'up 'writing the /test?"
In all the above examples the speaker should observe the rising tone at the end of phrases, thus making them sound polite and tentative.
Requests with a tag-like ending are quite common in English classroom and also take a rising tone: " Hand in your /papers, /would/ /will you?" or " ' Show me your /exercise-'book, /could//can you?" The word please may be added and occupy initial, middle, or final positions. When the teacher also mentions the student's name, he may feel free to change the order of name, 'please' and tag, for example:
" ' Put ' on your /head-'phones, | /Ann, /would you, 'please".
" ' Put ' on your /head-'phones, | /Ann, 'please, /would you".
" ' Put ' on your /head-'phones, | /please, 'Ann, /would you".
" ' Put ' on your /head-'phones, | ,please, / would you, 'Ann".
" ' Put ' on your /head-'phones, | /would you, 'Ann, 'please".
" ' Put ' on your /head-'phones, | /would you, 'please, 'Ann".
Addressing the class the teacher might use such polite forms as: "I ' wonder if you could 1 give a ci/tation?"; " ' Would you 1 mind / ' do you ' mind ' saying it a/gain?"; "' Do you ' think you could ' manage it on your /own?"
To express disapproval of student's behavior the teacher may use over-polite clichés, like: "Wouldyou 'be so /kind as to ^concentrate on the 3task at /hand?" or "Would you 'be ^kind e/nough to 'stop /talking?"
Sometimes the teacher needs to demonstrate still stronger feelings and attitudes of discontent and resentment, anger, despair or frustration. But even in such cases English teachers avoid direct commands. Instead, they might use the following phrases: "I 3wish you would 3stop vcheating!"; "3Can't you 3even vread / >try / \listen?"; "If 3only you would \listen / vtry / 3stop talking!" The utterances are concise in form and rather expressive, the intonation laying additional emphasis on them. The grammatical structure and wording, as well as use of the sliding scale and a variety of terminal tones manifest the exact modality.
Alongside with requests English teachers commonly employ suggestions addressed either to the whole class or to one student, thus stimulating their activity. Suggestions may be direct or indirect. A direct suggestion is usually introduced by I suggest, may I suggest, I would suggest, my suggestion is, for example: "I su' ggest ' starting with the \dialogue"; "' May I su ' ggest you infsert ^more .pictures in the ,presen/tation"; "I would su ' ggest you ' learn this 'passage by /heart"; "My su ' ggestion /is8 (that) you 'think of your^own e.xamples /now". A falling tone, a rise, or a "fall plus rise" pattern are quite common and demonstrate the contextual modality.
Indirect suggestions can be introduced in a variety of ways. One of widely used is a "let's" suggestion. Suggestions starting with "let's" with a mid falling tone at the end sound rather confident, for example: " ' Let's 3 finish 3off this 3exercise \now". The use of the rise imparts the meaning of encouragement, as in the following phrase: " ' Let's 'try to ' do the /next 'exercise".
The "let's" suggestion is often accompanied by the tag '/shall we?', the latter being used in both, positive and negative structures, as in the following examples: " ' Let's ' listen to the faudio 'file a\gain, /shall we?" and "3Let's 3not ^do 'all of the \exercise /now, /shall we?"
A suggestion can also start with the words "how about/what about". In this case, suggestions take the form of a special question which is usually pronounced with the falling tone. However, to show interest and make such suggestions sound tentative it is advisable to use a rise or a "fall plus rise" pattern at the end of them, for example: "'How about
^Ann re,citing , Shakespeare's /sonnet?" or " ' What about Gyou .giving the .summary of the /story?" These structures can also be used when asking students to give answers to questions as in the following phrases: "The \next .exercise /now. ' What about Gyou, /George?" or " ' Question 'number \six. ' How about Ghat one, /Lucy?"
A "what if" phrase may function as a suggestion too, for example: " ' What if you pro 'nounce(d) it with a 'high /pre-head?" or " ' What if we 'use(d) a \different .modal .verb /here?"
"What about if/how about if" structures are possible to use in the same way, as in the phrases: " 'How about if we trans\cribe(d) these /sentences?" or " ' What about if you ' change(d) the /word 'order?"
The use of a rising terminal tone in the above examples makes them polite and tentative.
English teachers widely use suggestions starting with "why not/ why don't we/couldn't we", for example: " ' Why don't we ' start 'right a\way?"; " ' Why not re 'peat the 'word ' several /times?" or " ' Couldn't we ' do it ' after the /break?" Both, rising and falling tones may be used in these sentences.
In English classroom one can often hear teachers pronounce suggestions with modal verbs can, could, may, might, would, need and also with the noun need: "You can ' have some \more .time to .go .through the /test" ; "You may \skip this .paragraph"; "You 'needn't ' do it 'right /now" or "There's ' no \need to trans. cribe the .whole /text". Modal verbs are often used with (just) as well, for example: "You might as /well8.give your \own e.xample", "You could 'just as /well 8 be ' gin with the \adverb" or "It would be 'just as /well for you 8 to re 'vise ' Past \Simple".
Rising and falling tones and the pattern of "fall plus rise" are common in these phrases.
Modal verbs are often used by English teachers in structures with the word "idea", as in the examples: "It might be / would be a 'good i/dea 8 for 'you to re 'vise \this / to 'write ' down these \idioms" or "It 'wouldn't be a ' bad i/dea 8 if you re/vised it". The first sense-group takes a rising tone, and the final one can end in a falling or rising tone.
To persuade students to do something English teachers give advice in the form of a conditional: "It would be /better8 if you ' listened to the audio / file 8 ' once \more". The phrase can end either in a fall or a rise.
So, giving directions to the students, teachers should use requests and various forms of suggestions in a polite and tentative way. At the
same time, teachers should sound confident and motivating, which is achieved by speaking at a moderate rate and also by varying timbre, loudness and pitch to emphasize words. Vocal movements - pitch, rhythm, sentence stress, pauses and tempo - are very important in oral classroom communication as they help maintain students' interest. The teacher's voice should express confidence, assurance and stimulate performance.
We agree with G. M. Frolova who believes that teachers should be aware of the significance of nonverbal communication and draw their students' attention to it. "We should try to teach them to keep their eyes open when they watch foreign films or meet their foreign friends. We cannot teach schoolchildren to use authentic body language, but we can and should warn them against using inappropriate body language which our foreign partners may find offensive" [2: 22].
Nonverbal messages need to be natural, consistent and congruent with the verbal and prosodic ones. On the nonverbal level confidence is manifested by a relaxed fluidity in the movements of teachers as there is no strong muscular tension. Confident and positive attitude is also characterized by open and relaxed posture. On the contrary, being tense may result in a sort of rigid movements and negative closed posture [6].
Making appropriate eye contact with the students, expressing friendliness and positive attitude stimulate classroom activity and motivation. The teachers' verbal and nonverbal behaviour may serve as an important source in the formation and development of students' motivation and competence, their attitudes and also their reciprocal behaviour, as students tend to mirror verbal and nonverbal language of their teachers.
A research, carried out by American scholars, suggests that academic achievement can be fostered by teacher expectations manifested nonverbally. In the experiment the teachers were told that their pupils had high scores and were expected to show great progress. In reality, they were elementary school children from a low socioeconomic district and these pupils were chosen at random. Of course, the teachers did not tell their students that they expected higher academic results from them. This message was conveyed nonverbally through gestures, postures, facial expressions and space. As a result, the children changed their motivation, self-image and academic performance and showed very high scores at the end of the year [5]. We should add that in fostering such achievements a great role belongs to intonation and prosodic organization of the exact
verbal message of the teacher. So, a good teacher, using a variety of prosodic, verbal and nonverbal means, can raise students' expectations, which in turn raises their academic performance.
It is important that teachers use natural body movements when talking in front of a small group of students or delivering a lecture to a larger audience. Recent studies show that the meaning of a nonverbal message depends on the plane, or part of the body, where gestures are performed [3].
M. Bowden, one of the world's famous performance trainers and a consultant to politicians, businessmen and leading companies, criticizes the widely spread opinion that during a presentation (or a lecture, etc.) the speaker should keep his arms down, along the sides of the body. This erroneous point of view can be found in many hand-books on public speeches. M. Bowden asserts that inappropriate postures (including motionless one) with hands down during presentations makes the speaker feel uneasy, nervous and diminishes his vocal delivery. His speech becomes dull in tone and boring to the audience.
The scholar has elaborated a different system of nonverbal cues which facilitate communication for both, the speaker and the listener. In the first place, it is advisable to hold hands within the plane of the waist line. Such position of the hands influences the tone of voice and modality of the message. The speaker feels confident, and produces the impression of a trustworthy and competent person, thus creating a very positive image of himself.
The plane above the waist-line is employed for the expression of emotions. It extends higher to the chest and up to the shoulders. Gestures performed on this plane manifest various feelings, and accompany emotionally coloured speech [3].
Thus, confidence, professional skills and competence of the lecturer, on the one hand, and expressiveness, on the other hand, can be manifested by using alternatively both planes of the body. However, it is not advisable to use the plane of the head, which is characterized by its own specificity and which is not typical of public speeches.
By way of final conclusion, we must say that Russian teachers following the best Russian academic traditions and the best examples of English teachers' verbal and nonverbal language can foster positive behaviours in their students, as well as help them overcome negative ones. It is important that teachers strive for clear, correct articulation and
Н. Б. Цибуля
use melody and pauses to emphasize logical points and provide adequate time for students to answer questions.
Supportive strategies of the teacher should include encouragement and praise aimed at raising motivation, academic expectations and academic performance of the students.
REFERENCES
1. Ларина Т. В. Англичане и русские: Язык, культура, коммуникация. - М. : Языки славянских культур, 2013. - 360 с.
2. Фролова Г. М. Teaching Nonverbal Communication in the FL Classroom // Английский язык в школе. - 2010. - № 2 (30). - C. 18-26.
3. Bowden, M. Winning Body Language. - N. Y. : Mc Grawl Hill, 2010. - 234 p.
4. Hughes Glyn S. A Handbook of Classroom English. - Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1983. - 219 p.
5. Miller Patrick W. Body on the Job Language. - Munster, Indiana : Patrick W. Miller and Associates, 2006. - 75 p.
6. Phipps R. Body Language: It's What You Don't Say That Matters. - UK, Cornwall, Padstow: Capstone, 2012. - 232 p.
