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ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКАЯ ТЕОРИЯ
ДОХОЛЯН C.B.,АРУТЮНЯН В.Л.
МЕТОДОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ПОДХОДЫ К РАССМОТРЕНИЮ МЕХАНИЗМА СТРУКТУРНЫХ СДВИГОВ В ЭКОНОМИКЕ
Аннотация. В представленной статье структурные сдвиги в экономике рассматриваются как изменения качества взаимосвязей между элементами хозяйственной системы в результате неравномерной динамики их количественных характеристик. Структурные сдвиги в экономике являются категорией макроуровня, но проявляются они на всех уровнях хозяйствования. Основным противоречием структурных сдвигов в экономике является противоречие между неравномерной динамикой развития различных элементов в структуре экономики. Исходным противоречием структурных сдвигов в экономике является противоречие между динамикой отдельных составляющих структуры общественных потребностей. Производными противоречиями структурных сдвигов в экономике являются: противоречие между сдвигами в натурально -вещественной и стоимостной структуре экономики, противоречие между внешними и внутренними структурными сдвигами, а также между разнонаправленными сдвигами в рамках определенной экономической системы. Структурные сдвиги в экономике характеризуются качественной и количественной определенностью. Основной качественной характеристикой структурных сдвигов в экономике является показатель, отражающий их ориентацию относительно направления социально-экономического прогресса человечества на пути от доиндустриального к постиндустриальному обществу.
Ключевые слова: механизм структурных сдвигов, хозяйственная система, структурные сдвиги, противоречие, общественные потребности, хозяйственный механизм, механизма средней прибыли, механизм перераспределения стоимости, стоимостная структура экономики.
DOKHOLYAN S.V., HARUTYUNYAN V.L.
METHODOLOGY APPROACH TO DISCUSSING THE MECHANISM OF STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN THE ECONOMY
Abstract. In the presented paper the structural changes in the economy were seen as changes in the quality of relationships among elements of the economic-governme ntal system as a result of the uneven dynamics of their quantitative characteristics of tion. Structural shifts in the economy category are the macro-level, but they manifest themselves at all levels of management. The main contradiction of structural shifts in the economy is the contradiction between uneven development dynamics of various elements in the structure of the economy. Source contradiction of structural shifts in the economy is the contradiction between the dynamics of the individual components of the structure of social needs. Derivative contradictions of structural shifts in the economy are: the contradiction between the shifts in the natural-material and cost structure of the economy, the contradiction between the external and internal structural shifts, and also between multi-directional shifts within a particular economic system. Structural shifts in the economy are characterized by qualitative and quantitative certainty. The main qualitative characteristics of structural changes in the economy is an indicator of their orientation relative to the direction of socio-economic progress of mankind on the path from pre-industrial to a postindustrial society.
Keywords: The mechanism of structural changes, economic system, structural changes, contradiction, public need, economic mechanism, the mechanism of average profit, value reallocation mechanism, value structure of the economy.
The structural changes initiated and implemented in an economy happen as in any self-regulating and/or self-organizing system through a respective mechanism. M.Yu Osipov defines a mechanism as "a system of organizing a system" [6]. In the economic literature some types of economic mechanisms are well studied and addressed such as economic and pricing mechanisms in markets, and etc. Several approaches to the issues on mechanism of structural changes have been discussed by N. D. Kondratieff, S. M. Menshikov and other economists. However, this issue hasn't been properly addressed with a systemic approach in the economic literature.
By a "mechanism of structural changes", in general, we understand a "conflicting interaction" of elements of the structure of the economy that helps transform the economy. When the "mechanism of structural changes" is applied with regard to the structure of economy it could be defined as a mechanism of agreeing upon changes in the structure of public needs and necessities and allocation of resources: production factors, first of all.
As any economic mechanism, the mechanism of structural changes represents subjects, objects and their interaction. The subjects of structural changes are economic agents on various levels of the economy: individuals, households, enterprises, industries of economy, and regions and national economies, and national economy in the global economy. Based on the fact that a structural change in the economy is a macro-level category, individuals, households, and enterprises are aggregated with the national and global economies. [3, 4]
The objects of the structural changes are various elements of the economic system representing the structure of the former one and with quantitative and qualitative characteristics at the macro-level. These elements could be different groups of population based on the income level, elements and/or components of the aggregate demand and supply, technology intensity and legal entities classified based on the type of ownership, volume of physical production and industry characteristics, and etc.
The mechanism of structural changes covers the main elements of forces and relations of production. At least 2 levels of the mechanism of structural changes could be highlighted. The first level is related to country's factor endowment: capital and labor, and the second is related to relations of production. The second level, in its turn, could be divided into 2 sub-levels or parts: super-structure part-the most flexible one, and subject to any, including unexpected factors affecting this level; and the base or substructure part is related to irrevocable changes happening in the structure of economic relations.
Super-structure part of the mechanism of structural changes covers the most flexible organizational-economic base of relations of production, so called "production mechanism." This is the platform where technology and respective socio-economic changes are happening reflecting the development of the system of the needs and necessitates of the general public.
Via the "production mechanism" the society actively influences the economic structure that "initiates and results in technical division of labor, specialization in line with the new level of development of forces of production. The key issue that is addressed here is to ensure the adequacy of organizational-economic relations and linkages (structural shell) to the level and pattern of development of forces of production" [3].
Any structural change starts from changes in technical characteristics of the economic system and organizational-economic relations: the quantity and technology intensity of the fixed capital formation, labor force and etc. However, not every change of this nature entails base and qualitative changes in the structure of economic relations, irrevocable changes in the structure of needs and necessities of the general public. The superstructure changes could be revoked, while base or substructure changes are good landmarks and/or milestones in the history of development of a particular method of production.
Overall, here either acceleration or stagnation in the evolution of the structure of the economy (structural crisis), shift from the development pattern (progressive) observed, various other changes with regard to the structure of the economy are stressed, and not the choice of historical path of the evolution of the structure of economy that is not determined by economists or policy makers, rather than by material (economic) history of the evolution of the humankind.
The research on functioning of the mechanism of structural changes in the economy is based on the following assumptions:
- In case of goods production the mechanism of structural changes in economy is of value nature;
- The changes in the structure of the public needs and necessities need to be in line with the cost and specific types of changes (natural and material) in the structure of production factors;
- The quantity of resources available for production in the given economy is limited [x].
1 According to V.L. Inozemtsev, in case of post-industrial society the boundary between the production and consumption will be dismissed, since the main production factor will be the knowledge, and the main type of economic activity will be creativeness. By this condition the information that develops the capability of a human being to generate new knowledge, in general, makes the consumption an element and/or factor of consumption, while knowledge and intelligence considered a truly unlimited production resource [5].
ДОХОЛЯН СВ., АРУ1ЮНЯН ВЛ.
_МЕТОДОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ПОДХОДЫ К РАССМОТРЕНИЮ МЕХАНИЗМА СТРЖТУРИЫХ СДЕИГОВ В ЭКОНОМИКЕ_
Based on the above stated assumptions, the mechanism of structural changes in economy is a value mechanism, first of all, to address their main controversy. The stated controversy could be addressed somewhat ambiguously :
- By allocation and redistribution of production resources among various sectors of the economy in line with the changes in the structure of needs and necessities of the society;
- By designing the structure of public needs and necessities in line with the current and expected allocation of production resources.
Despite the fact that with the development of the mass media sector the marketing and advertisement system has gained more importance the second method of addressing the main controversy jut supplements the first one, since this method can't be applied separately without considering the changes in allocation of production resources.
The connecting links of the mechanism of addressing the controversy of the patterns of respective shares of various elements in the structure of economy represent the exchange and allocation linkages. The main mechanism of structural changes is the process of allocation and redistribution (exchange) of production factors (capital, first of all) among the sectors and industries of economy. The given type of allocation is one of integral parts of division of labor in the society.
According to Karl Marx "... capital investments in one or another sector of production, the amount of the capital of the society that is allocated among various sectors of the productions, finally the relations that channel the resources from one production sector to the other, all is determined by changing relation that reflects the needs of society for the goods produced by these production sectors. " [2].
Structural changes are directly connected with the main capital flow in economy: inflows, outflows, and allocations among objects and subjects of these changes. In case of scarcity of resources, the capital inflow in a given sector of economy initiates a respective change in the structure of the economy, accompanied by the limited availability or outflow of capital from the other sectors that are experiencing structural changes, but in an opposite direction. Hence, the growth of production by investments-recipient industries of economy (enterprises, regions) in the structure of economy is accompanied by decline in production of industries that lack investments (enterprises, regions).
The functioning of the mechanism of structural changes in economy happens similar to the mechanism of average profit. David Ricardo describes this as the following: "Whilst every man is free to employ his capital where he pleases, he will naturally seek for it that employment which is most advantageous; he will naturally be dissatisfied with a profit of 10 per cent., if by removing his capital he can obtain a profit of 15 per cent. This restless desire on the part of all the employers of stock, to quit a less profitable for a more advantageous business, has a strong tendency to equalize the rate of profits of all, or to fix them in such proportions, as may in the estimation of the parties, compensate for any advantage which one may have, or may appear to have over the other." [7]. Changes in the structure of allocation of capital among industries and sectors of production, causing a change in the proportions to generate the average profit rate, entails structural changes in the economy, at the same time.
The difference between the mechanism of structural changes from the mechanism of average profit is not only the desire for higher profits by motivated economic agents in reallocating capital resources among various elements of the economic structure, and the set of economic needs, being the expression of certain interests. At the level of individuals, it may be the desire for personal enrichment; at the household level it could be the desire to increase the share of saved or consumed income; at the enterprise level it might be making the highest profits possible; and at the state, and national economy level, it could be the desire to ensure sustainable economic growth, and etc.
Hence, the main controversy of the structural changes in the economy is becoming more of specific types of internal controversy and/or contradiction of their own mechanism. The newly reported needs determine the respective changes in the structure of allocation of production resources, however, these very changes cannot be initiated without capital investments to entail and/or cause required structural changes. Therefore, the internal controversy of the mechanism of structural changes in an economy is the contradiction between changes in the needs and the availability of capital by subjects of the structural changes required to carry out the respective changes in the structure of resource allocation (factors of production).
Due to capital inflow in specific elements of the economic structure, additional resources are attracted to support any structural change. Hence, the size, potential, speed, and intensity of structural changes grows. The reverse process is the outflow of capital from the structural elements, thus resulting in decline in respective qualitative characteristics of structural changes.
Hence, the change in the structure of the effective demand on a specific good is the engagement of new economic agents and capital resources available to them in the process of consumption of the given product. The structural change of the increase in demand on a given product with money supply being fixed, meanwhile, determines opposite changes in the structure of the effective demand on other goods (complementary and supplementary goods, first of all).
The mechanism of structural changes in an economy is, meanwhile, a mechanism of value reallocation among changes of various qualitative characteristics and directions. Based on the rule of marginal utility, it could be concluded that with the structural change emerged in an economy the marginal utility of a new unit (value) declines when the structural change enters the "growth stage" from the "emergence stage". Eventually, the marginal utility of the inflow of capital becomes 0 and the change decays2.
Due to value nature of the mechanism of structural change in an economy, the issue of cost of capital (initial amount) is stressed being able to initiate any type of a structural change. Obviously, the given amount needs to be equal to the marginal utility of the first unit of capital investment in the growth of the structural change in an economy and depends on various factors: the respective interests, needs, and resources of economic agents, the given level of technical and technology development in a society, and etc.
By clarifying the definition of the mechanism of structural changes in the economy, it is required to add that along with main controversy it is connected with the whole system of controversies of structural changes, namely: initial (the contradiction between the dynamics of individual elements in the structure of needs) and derivative controversies, as well: between the changes in the natural-material and value structures of the economy, and changes in various directions within a particular economic system.
In addressing controversies and/or contradictions between the changes in the natural-material and value structures of the economy, the role of the mechanism of structural changes in the economy is to ensure dynamic compliance among changes in these structures. The value structure of economy is more dynamic, since the capital (monetary) is gaining an independent form of movement, sometimes far from the reality. The functioning of the mechanism of the structural changes, in this case, is reduced to agreeing upon the main natural-material and value flows in the economy.
The performance of the mechanism of structural changes in the economy is related to the controversy and/or contradiction among various changes in different directions within the economic sys-tem3.
Based on the functioning of the mechanism of allocating of capital among various structural changes it could be stated that the equilibrium in the development of structural elements in a relatively closed economic system over the long-term is reached, explained by the flow of capital from one structural change to another and vice versa. This process is the simplest of the "fluctuation phenomenon" that helps maintain the equilibrium in the economic structure. "The law of maintaining the structure of economy", generally speaking, is based on these processes. While the internal controversy and/or contradiction among changes in somewhat closed structure are less than those in case of changes in the structure of higher rank (controversies and/or contradictions between internal and external changes), the given structure would be preserved and/or maintained as a single one and produce structural changes and cause interactions among them, specific to the given structure. The above -mentioned "pattern" of equilibrium in relatively closed economic systems could be one of the expla-
2 Hence, in the given example of the structural change, when the demand on a specific good increases the marginal utility of each attracted unit diminishes (value) over the short-run as prices of the given product start increasing, since the effective demand exceeds the supply. The same applies to the structural change in case of an increase in the share of a given product of any enterprise (industry, region) towards increasing the share of products of a certain enterprise (industry, region) in the total production. The marginal utility of capital costs over the short-run decreases due to the law of diminishing returns and the respective change decays.
3 Hence, in a closed economic system with scare resources the inflow of capital to and/or its elements would determine the emergence of a change in the structure as a change, and anti-change opposite to the change. Moreover, the increase of qualitative characteristics of one of them is determined by the inflow of capital, and the decline of the other one, respectively: the outflow of capital.
ДОХОЛЯН СВ., АРУ1ЮНЯН ВЛ.
_МЕТОДОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ПОДХОДЫ К РАССМОТРЕНИЮ МЕХАНИЗМА СТРЖТУРНЫХ СДЕИГОВ В ЭКОНОМИКЕ_
nations of business cycles along with organizational, innovation theories and etc., as well.
Eventually, the given controversy and/or contradiction could be addressed in several ways (forms):
1. Assimilation: the absorption of one structural element by another via a structural change. The example is the increase in the demand on any type of product or service (substitute) due to their aggressive ad campaign
2. Addition: the expansion of boundaries of the economic structure by attracting "indifferent" elements (close to the border) through active change by preserving the own direction of the development of elements of the anti-change, and accompanied by decline in its respective share. Furthermore, the addition could be reported via mutual expansion of the opposing (contradictory) structural changes. This situation is specific to the stages of economic growth, when the opposing (contradictory) structural changes coexist and emerge as a single one by attracting new structural elements on its direction.
3. Crowding out: burst and the crowding out of the opposite structural elements that follow the burst. Under these circumstances, the structural changes that show this controversy and/or contradiction need to be not only opposite to each other, but also antagonistic, they need to directly affect the performance of economic agents (their survival). This is the most complex form of addressing the controversy and/or contradictions among various structural changes with different directions. Here the narrowing of the boundaries of the economic structure takes place, when the increase in economic space of one element (subjects of structural changes) leads to a decrease in the space of the others (survival of the elements takes place). As a result of the clash of elements of the interacting changes, the first or second elements do not necessarily win. Various types of deformations and emergence of completely new structural trends initially not specific to interacting changes in the structure of economy are possible.
Functioning of the mechanism of structural changes in the economy could be described differently depending on the forms of addressing controversies and/or conditions among changes of opposite (various) directions within the given economic system: as inflows of capital in adjacent structural sector, in case of assimilation; mutual financial support in case of addition; and financial suppression in case of crowding out. The first two forms of addressing the controversies could be considered a "constructive synergy", and the latter one is considered "destructive entropy".
Besides, it is necessary to remember when local (domestic) indicators of efficiency and the general indicator of the quality of structural changes do not match and/or highlight the same pattern that reflects its compliance with mains trends of the socio-economic progress. Regarding the mechanism of structural changes in the economy, it could be transmitted to the entire system of controversies and/or contradictions of changes in the structure of economy4.
Addressing the given controversies and/or contradictions of the structural changes could be based on the completeness of the system of reallocating capital resources from the sectors the development of which doesn't meet the criteria of efficiency, and the general indicator of quality of structural changes in the structure of economy to the sectors, the development of which is a progressive change in the structure of the economy, and simultaneously contributes to its effective development.
The internal contradiction of the mechanism of structural changes in the economy reflects the objective inconsistency between the subjective and the objective of its elements:
- Subjective - is related to the subjects of the structural changes. These include both the economic agents (the government, firms, households, and etc.) and their activities in terms of implementing the structural changes in the economy;
- Objective - the set of material elements of the economic structure the actions of the subjects and instruments are headed to (investments, taxes, and so on) by the help of which the economic agents carry out structural changes.
Both groups of these elements are in contradictory interdependence. The contradiction of the mechanism of structural changes is addressed in the interaction among its subjective-objective elements. The subjects of structural changes by affecting the objects via a variety of tools within the strategy designed and defined by them, are making various capital investments, thus bringing struc-
4 The fact is the needs of the subjects of the structural changes do not always mirror the vital interests of the society. Effective change from the viewpoint of the majority of society that would increase the wealth of people (such as capital outflow abroad) will not necessarily happen in the interests ofthe nation and the national economy, overall.
ture of production (resource allocation) in accordance with the structure of own needs.
Depending on the type of interaction, the interaction among subjective and objective elements of the mechanism two types could be highlighted: the administrative-command and market mechanisms. In commodity production the process of reallocation of capital resources to meet the changing needs and technology change is mediated primarily by the market mechanism, which under current conditions, in some extent, is governed by the economic policy implemented by the government. Along with these "major regulators" of economic proportions (shares), the rules of value, supply and demand, determining the direction of structural changes via changes in "price and value" proportions of the social reproduction are considered "regulators". The intensity of structural changes in commodity production, definitely, depends on the application of these laws, that is how fast the market responds to changes in the needs of the society, conditions of production, and vice versa.
The equilibrium between the structure of the production base and the structure of changing demand in the market economy is reached by maintaining some of the excess production capacity over the existing needs, and at the expense of the group of small and unstable firms.
In a centrally planned economy many of above-mentioned functions5 are executed by the government: respective authorities.
Depending on which mechanism of the structural changes (market or administrative-command) prevails in a certain period, one or the other reason has a decisive impact on the economic structure of society, determines the direction of structural changes. And not always the direction of structural changes corresponds to the progressive trends in the economic system of the society, possible backward movements and other negative developments might be reported.
It should be noted that the mechanism of structural changes is not strictly deterministic, rather it is carried out both as "stochastic average" of the entire set of possible reasons, only some of which, in our opinion, the most significant ones, are discussed in this article.
The results of the analysis show that during the transition period when the impact of subjective (non-economic) factors increases, the contradiction of the mechanism of structural changes in the economy is complemented by a modified interaction between subjective and objective elements of a specific form of contradiction of "objective and subjective emergence" of the given mechanism6.
Here comes a special type of the mechanism of structural changes unique to the state of transition in the economy. It is described as a violation of relations among objective and subjective elements, since transition economies lack well-established institutes. Often households lack capital, strategy and tools to initiate and carry out a structural change. Thus, the system of opposite structural changes in the economy is supplemented and intensified by the controversy between subjective and objective emergence of structural changes.
Testing the real interaction of the respective initiations, is much more difficult than direct contradiction (linear opposition), since it couldn't exist in the pure form of objective or subjective productive relations7. However, these two starting points (emergence of change) highlighted are relatively autonomous, and hence, could be considered opposite and/or contradictions, the interaction between them becomes one of the sources of movement and the development of the structure of economy in the transition period.
Despite the fact that one of the aspects of contradictions is the subjective aspect, the contradiction is objective overall, as objective is any economic relation among subjects. The contradiction stated by us is eventually addressed only in the case when there is a close link and/or relationship between the subjective and objective aspects of the mechanism of structural changes, and the opposite, the controversy becomes more complicated or deepens, when the relationship is weak or there is no relation.
This works as the following: each stage of the development of the material basis of the society
5 Namely, pricing mechanism in markets, and the mechanism of allocation of capital resources among the various sectors and industries of the economy
6 Objective: something that belongs to the subjects and is determined by it regardless the subject. Subjective: derivative of the activity of economic agents, reproduced due to the activity (forms of activity). Being an active power in the interaction between the object and subject, a human being, however, doesn't act voluntarily and/or arbitrarily, since the object sets certain boundaries, constraints on the activity of the subjects, because its objectives are shaped in accordance with the logic of the development of the objective world, objectively associated with the needs of the subject and the level of sophistication of production.
7 Due to interaction of production factors and people, material and human factors objective things become subjective ones and the subjective things become objective ones.
ДОХОЛЯН СВ., АРУ1ЮНЯН ВЛ.
_МЕТОДОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ПОДХОДЫ К РАССМОТРЕНИЮ МЕХАНИЗМА СТРЖТУРНЫХ СДВИГОВ В ЭКОНОМИКЕ_
requires respective economic structure, however, the transition period is characterized by uncertain, unstable structure of the economy and increasing role subjective factors. The mechanism of implementing structural changes per se is not an established one. If the society or any other group of it adequately reflects objective trends in the transforming the structure of economy and creates conditions for the development, then the contradiction of objective and subjective emergence is partly addressed. If due to any other reasons this doesn't happen, the contradiction deepens and becomes more of the conflict (crisis) type8.
The structure as a philosophy category is a conservative part of the phenomenon or the process, the backbone the most movable elements of it are connected with. The inertia of the old system is huge, hence, for changing the given structure the actions of economic agents need to have strong transforming potential and have a strong motivation.
Coming back to the issue of controversy of the mechanism of the structural changes, it is required to state that while addressing it the criteria of effectiveness of structural changes are maintained and the principle of compliance with the main trends and patterns of the socioeconomic development, then the structural changes headed in the progressive direction, and the interests and needs of the economic agents are met to some extent (adequately and/or sufficiently): i.e. the development is headed in the right direction (upward movement). And if in case of the stated contradicting interaction the criteria of public efficiency and quality are neglected, the structural changes could occur and be headed in the wrong direction; negative outcomes and often decline and/or stagnation are reported.
According to V.L. Inozemtsev, in case of post-industrial society the boundary between the production and consumption will be dismissed, since the main production factor will be the knowledge, and the main type of economic activity will be creativeness. By this condition the information that develops the capability of a human being to generate new knowledge, in general, makes the consumption an element and/or factor of consumption, while knowledge and intelligence considered a truly unlimited production resource [5].
Hence, in a closed economic system with scare resources the inflow of capital to and/or its elements would determine the emergence of a change in the structure as a change, and anti-change opposite to the change. Moreover, the increase of qualitative characteristics of one of them is determined by the inflow of capital, and the decline of the other one, respectively: the outflow of capital.
The fact is the needs of the subjects of the structural changes do not always mirror the vital interests of the society. Effective change from the viewpoint of the majority of society that would increase the wealth of people (such as capital outflow abroad) will not necessarily happen in the interests of the nation and the national economy, overall.
Namely, pricing mechanism in markets, and the mechanism of allocation of capital resources among the various sectors and industries of the economy
Objective: something that belongs to the subjects and is determined by it regardless the subject. Subjective: derivative of the activity of economic agents, reproduced due to the activity (forms of activity). Being an active power in the interaction between the object and subject, a human being, however, doesn't act voluntarily and/or arbitrarily, since the object sets certain boundaries, constraints on the activity of the subjects, because its objectives are shaped in accordance with the logic of the development of the objective world, objectively associated with the needs of the subject and the level of sophistication of production.
Due to interaction of production factors and people, material and human factors objective things become subjective ones and the subjective things become objective ones.
For example, if the activity of economic agents is based on the objective laws, then it is speeds up (accelerates) the transformation of the structure of economy in a direction towards the progress; however, if it is directed against the objective economic development, then it is considered an obstacle that leads to preserving the "obsolete" structural elements and intensifies the negative trends in transforming the structure of economy.
8 For example, if the activity of economic agents is based on the objective laws, then it is speeds up (accelerates) the transformation of the structure of economy in a direction towards the progress; however, if it is directed against the objective economic development, then it is considered an obstacle that leads to preserving the "obsolete" structural elements and intensifies the negative trends in transforming the structure of economy.
Литература
1. Абалкин Л.И. Обобществление производства и совершенствование хозяйственного механизма // Обобществление производства и развитие экономической системы социализма. Казань, 1978. С. 179, 180.
2. Архив Маркса и Энгельса. Т. II (VII). М, 1933. С. 75,77.
3. Дохолян С.В. Оптимизации структурных сдвигов в экономике с использование логистики / С.В. До-холян, В.З. Петросянц, А.М. Садыкова //Региональные проблемы преобразования экономики. № 2, С. 9 -18. 2008.
4. Дохолян С.В. Особенности структурных преобразований в трансформационной экономике / С.В. Дохолян, В.З. Петросянц, А.М. Садыкова//Вопросы структуризации экономики. №1, С. 36-43. 2008.
5. Иноземцев В.Л. Современное постиндустриальное общество: природа, противоречия, перспективы. М., 2000.)
6. Осипов Ю.М. Опыт философии хозяйства. М., 1990. С. 144 - 145.
7. Ricardo, David, 1821, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, London: John Murray, Albemarle-Street, 3rd edition, p.81 (538p.)
References:
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