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УДК 81
МЕТАФОРА В ПОЛИТИЧЕСКИХ РЕЧАХ АМЕРИКАНСКИХ И РОССИЙСКИХ ПРЕЗИДЕНТОВ
© 2016
Привалова Екатерина Вячеславовна, соискатель
Пермский государственный национальный исследовательский университет (614990, Россия, Пермский край, город Пермь, улица Букирева, 15, e-mail: sofustick@mail.ru)
Аннотация. Феномен метафоры изучается со времен античности. Исторически метафора была объектом интереса разных наук: риторики, психологии, литературоведения, журналистики и лингвистики. В современном языкознании сформировалось два основных подхода к классификации метафоры. Больше всего приверженцев получила концептуальная (когнитивная) теория метафоры. В соответствии с декоративным подходом, метафора «играет центральную роль в мышлении и является неотъемлемой частью как мышления, так и языка». Хотя метафора обычно ассоциируется с поэзией и поэтической функцией языка, она, как пишет Рикёр, также выполняет риторическую функцию и является популярным инструментом в сфере политики. Анализ метафоры во всех этих случаях позволяет выделить следующие ее функции: номинативную, информативную, текстообразующую, эмоциональную и оценочную. Наиболее продуктивными типами метафоры для обеих стран являются концептуальная метафора строительства (конструкции/деструкции) и метафора путешествия. Следует отметить, что метафора организма также очень важна для обоих политических дискурсов, поскольку она позволяет оценить состояние экономики и других сфер социальной деятельности. Теоретический и практический материал данного исследования может оказаться полезным для студентов и аспирантов, изучающих теорию метафоры и политическую лингвистику. Кроме того, содержание данной работы может представлять интерес для специалистов в области спичрайтинга при выборе наиболее эффективной стратегии написания политических речей.
Ключевые слова: политическая речь, лингвистика, метафорические единицы, виды метафоры, функции метафоры, политические тексты.
METAPHOR IN POLITICAL SPEECHES OF AMERICAN AND RUSSIAN PRESIDENTS
© 2016
Privalova Ekaterina Vjacheslavovna, applicant
Perm State national Research University (614990, Russia, Perm region, Perm, street bukireva, 15 e-mail: sofustick@mail.ru)
Abstract. Metaphor is a phenomenon which has been studied since ancient times. Historically the metaphor is of interest for such different sciences as rhetoric, psychology, the theory of literature, journalism and linguistics. In modern science there are two opposite approaches to metaphor classification. The conceptual or Cognitive Metaphor Theory (CMT) is the most accepted theory that relates metaphor to cognition. As opposed to the decorative approach, this theory states that metaphor "plays a central role in thought, and is indispensable to both thought and language". Although the metaphor is usually associated with poetry and poetical function of the language as, writes Riceur, it also has rhetorical function and is a popular tool in politics. The analysis of the metaphors in all these cases, allows to distinguish their following functions: nominative, informative, text-forming, emotional and evaluative ones. Moreover, the most productive metaphor types for both countries are the conceptual metaphor of building construction and destruction and the metaphors of journey. As is noteworthy that the metaphor of organism is very important for both political discourses, because it helps to value the condition of economy and other branches of society activities. The theoretical and applied content of the research done so far can be useful for students and postgraduates studying metaphor theory and political linguistics. Besides this, the data gained may be of help and special interest for speechwriters in choosing the most effective strategy of compiling political public speeches.
Keywords: political speech, linguistics, metaphorical units, metaphor types, functions of metaphor, political texts.
Metaphor is a phenomenon which has been studied since difficult to express in literal speech because literal words are
ancient times. During the antiquity metaphor was examined lacking [5];
by Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian. Historically the meta- - metaphors may add vividness to a speech [5];
phor is of interest for such different sciences as rhetoric, psy- - metaphors may help structuring the argument [6];
chology, the theory of literature, journalism and linguistics. - metaphors may help in face-threatening situations in
In our report we are examining metaphors from the point which it is more appropriate to speak about a topic in an
of linguistics. The object of our study is political speech of indirect way [9].
American and Russian presidents. The subject matter of our In modern science there are two opposite approaches
research deal with metaphorical units in their public address- to metaphor classification. The conceptual or Cognitive
es. The content body of our report is based on the political Metaphor Theory (CMT) is the most accepted theory that
texts of J.F.Kennedy, Bill Clinton, Barac Obama, George relates metaphor to cognition. As opposed to the decorative
Bush, Boris Yeltsin, Vladimir Putin and Dmitriy Medvedev. approach, this theory states that metaphor "plays a central
The aim of our research is to describe the semantics and role role in thought, and is indispensable to both thought and
of different metaphor types in political texts. To attain this language" [1:4]. Although the metaphor is usually associated
goal we must resolve the following tasks: with poetry and poetical function of the language as, writes
1) to give a definition of metaphor; Riceur, it also has rhetorical function [5:12] and is a popular
2) to represent different metaphor classifications; tool in politics.
3) to study the semantics of metaphors and their func- Metaphor was also examined by many researchers, tions in political speech; such as E. Riesel, A. A. Richards, A. P. Chudinov, N. D.
4) to compare the metaphor types in addresses of Arutyunova and N. N. Kuznetsova. In Russian linguistical American and Russian presidents; tradition we can see semantic (based on their meaning - M.
We are adhere to the definition of metaphor from the P. Brandes, V. P. Moskvin) and grammatical classification
Merriam-Webster dictionary. According to this defini- (based on word classes - V. I. Shuvalov, S. A. Khakhalova)
tion the metaphor is "a figure of speech in which a word of metaphors.
or phrase, literally denoting one kind of object or idea, is In our research paper we are studying metaphors in
used in place of another one to suggest a likeness or analogy accordance with CMT (Cognitive Metaphor Theory)
between them." [3]. Compared to the simile, the metaphor approach. It provides a deeper understanding of textual
doesn't include such conjunctions as like, as, как, будто, semantics. For instance, the Dutch specialist Hanne Penninck
словно and other ones. distinguishes about 20 metaphor themes for British and
- metaphors may communicate something which is American politicians, but the most productive with her are
the themes of battle, machine, construction and journey. To the above mentions themes we would also add the concepts of destruction and organism.
Now would like to dwell upon in detail on the following themes or concepts: the first one is the conceptual metaphor of BATTLE. The core of semantic field for fighting includes names of enemies, weapons, aggression (tyranny), different synonyms of battle and actions during battles and these nominations appear in metaphors of BATTLE.
Different social activities are perceived through the conceptual metaphor of war. Seeing political activity as war is a purposeful justification for continuous confrontation and fighting in politics. Within this frame, politicians are seen as good and evil, and the former has the moral rights to fight and manipulate the latter by using coercive means.
The latter may be illustrated through the following structural patterns:
- The first one is "adjective + substantive (noun)"
For example:
-merely to be replaced by a far more iron tyranny (JFK);
- Почему наши парламентские баталии закончились залпами танков? (BY);
- The world is no longer divided into two hostile camps (BC);
- The second pattern is genitive constructions:
For example:
- the shadows of the Cold War (BC);
- tempered by the flames of battle (BO);
- the anchor of strong alliances (BO);
- Когда же прекратится эта война компроматов? (BY);
- The third pattern comprises verb + substantive Accusative:
For example:
- позже я узнал, какую атаку на администрацию и на Путина предпринял Чубайс (BY);
- это мы сами остановили агрессию международного терроризма (VP);
- tempered by war (JFK);
- without whom we could not have elections or waged our battles (BC);
- Through blood drawn by lash and blood drawn by sword (BO).
In conclusion we can state that the function of "battle metaphor" is emotive, because the leader turns the whole situation into a dramatic fight. So, war metaphor is implied in the element of battle field where politicians face many challenges and fight against anyone attempts to tamper with its unity. Therefore, in both leaders' speeches, the pragmatic morality model as reflected in war metaphor characterized Russia's and America's policies as aggressive and combative which are morally justified to achieve their unity and stability.
Now let me pass on the conceptual metaphors of MACHINE:
The machine metaphor is mostly used to represent the subject - politics, economy, world - as a system. The core of this semantic field consists of nominations for different details, parts, tools, devices, functions and so on. This type of metaphor has been found in the following structural patterns:
- The first one is verb + substantive Accusative.
Let me supply this statement with the following examples from B. Clinton's public speeches:
- hasn't fully closed the gap between... (BC)
- strong enough to give us the tools to solve our problems for ourselves (BC)
- They fuel the fanaticism of terror (BC)
Here are some more instances of t
he same kind from B. Yeltcin's public speeches:
-Я заставлял быстрее крутиться колеса хозяйственного механизма (BY)
«...нельзя безоговорочно отдавать все кнопки на "пульте мирового развития" в одни руки» (BY).
The analysis of this kind metaphor theme gives evidence
that: its major is descriptive or informative, because the leader characterizes some event or phenomena as a device.
Now we shall deal with the third type of metaphor theme, namely, conceptual metaphors of CONSTRUCTION.
We suppose this theme should be studied together with the theme of destruction, as the semantic field includes substantives and verbs for building and destroying, creating and breaking, as well as nominations for houses, buildings and their elements, for example, basis, fundaments and frameworks. As usual let us turn to some very conspicuous in our opinion examples:
- we must build a framework ... (BO);
- был создан мощный фундамент для долгосрочного развития (DM);
- строить самые передовые производства (DM);
- в обустройстве огромных российских пространств (VP);
- опираться на прочный фундамент (VP).
The analysis of the metaphors included into this category enables to conclude that the construction metaphor is a very positive one, which makes the political leader look as if he were the architect, whereas the conceptual metaphor of destruction emphasizes the idea of breakdown and collapse which is seen through the examples given below.
Now a few words about the conceptual metaphor of DESTRUCTION:
- to break the bonds of mass misery (JFK);
- the dark powers of destruction (JFK);
- global forces of destruction (BC);
- we must crack down on trading activity (BO).
The next category of metaphor theme is that of journey. This theme is strongly connected with the semantic field of moving. The leaders use different such nominations for road, direction and travelling as "path", "journey", "trip", "course", "путь", "ход", "курс", "ориентир" and etc. The use of journey metaphor may be illustrated with the help of the following examples:
- final success or failure of our course (JFK);
- and our journey too will come to an end, but the journey of our America must go on (BC);
- we will sustain America's journey (BC);
- america's long, heroic journey (BC);
- get back on the path of growth and job creation (GWB);
- when we see that wounded traveler on the road to Jericho, we will not pass to the other side (GWB);
- we must follow no other course (GWB);
- we continue a never-ending journey ... (BO);
- the path towards sustainable energy sources will be long ... (BO);
- ход истории (DM);
- ориентир на годы вперед (DM);
- мы вместе прошли большой и сложный путь (VP);
- путь к свободному обществу (VP).
Journey metaphors represent a very effective means in depicting the life time since the verbs of motion in a journey highlight the movements and actions taken in life and the destination reached at the end of a journey highlights the goals people want to achieve in their life.
And the last but not the least group of metaphor themes is the conceptual metaphor of organism. The semantical field in it includes names of body and its parts, organs and processes, illnesses and health, different somatic conditions. The instances of this type of metaphor thematical use may be illustrated through the following phrases:
- we must keep our old democracy forever young (BC);
- the flow of credit is the lifeblood of our economy (BO);
- america's prosperity must rest upon the broad shoulders of a rising middle class (BO);
- боль каждого из вас отзывалась болью во мне, в моем сердце (BY)
- кто-то из старых знакомых трусливо отводил глаза, чтобы случайно не замазаться о "прокаженного" (BY).
As is well seen through the examples given above, the function of this metaphor type is evaluative, because it helps
to value the condition of the subject.
The analysis of the metaphors in all these cases, allows to distinguish their following functions: nominative, informative, text-forming, emotional and evaluative ones.
In our research we has proved that American presidents use metaphors more often than Russian leaders, which can be accounted for by the fact that the rhetorical tradition in the USA is older the rhetorical than tradition in Russia.
Moreover, the most productive metaphor types for both countries are the conceptual metaphor of building construction and destruction and the metaphors of journey.
As is noteworthy that the metaphor of organism is very important for both political discourses, because it helps to value the condition of economy and other branches of society activities.
The theoretical and applied content of the research done so far can be useful for students and postgraduates studying metaphor theory and political linguistics. Besides this, the data gained may be of help and special interest for speech-writers in choosing the most effective strategy of compiling political public speeches.
To summarize, the analysis showed that some metaphors are subtle implications of issues that have to be discussed and acted on and other metaphors are powerful and serious explanations, highlighting current issues. Political speeches are not primary about politics itself, but are a way to present current issues in a way so that the people realize the problems and the visions of the politicians.
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