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Original Paper
DOI: 10.29025/2079-6021-2019-1-102-111
Metaphor as a way of understanding reality
Ekaterina B. Ryabykh
Derzhavin Tambov State University, Tambov, Russian Federation ORCID ID: 0000-0002-1734-565X; e-mail: ekaterina_ryabykh@mail.ru
Received: 21.12.2018 Accepted: 29.01.2019 Published online: 25.03.2019
Abstract: In the article, the text, in particular the poetic one, is considered in the light of cognitive linguistics as a way of fixing and translating the individual consciousness of the author producing it, in connection with which, the problems of identifying the intended individual author's sense in the process of decoding in order to minimize failures of the adequacy of its understanding, individual author's metaphorical interpretation of various kinds of objects, events, their characteristics in the process of cognition, as well as finding points of contact between the individual author's and the collective, national and universal are considered significant. Individual author's metaphor is considered as a way of comprehending reality. It is noted that the metaphor awakens and connects our memories of the past and serves as a possible reference point for the future. The individual author's metaphor can act not only as a means of comprehending, reconstructing (recreating) reality, designing, transforming, refracting from a certain angle, but also a means of escape from it. Only what is a significant part of the human world, and the way it is dictated, in particular, by our experience, including sensory one, which "delivers" us raw materials from which we construct our pictures of the world is learnt metaphorically. The result of metaphorization is influenced by our beliefs, made by us on the basis of experience, which, as a rule, are updated and adjusted as new experience is acquired. Values give meaning to our beliefs. Internal states serve simultaneously as a filter for perception and a stimulus for actions (the theory of R. Dilts, transformed for generating the metaphor). Social attitudes serve as directed vectors of mental operations. All of the above is a "building material", from which individual author's metaphors are formed.
Keywords: conceptual metaphor, individual author's metaphor, interpretation, comprehension of reality, P. Celan.
For citation: Ryabykh E.B. Metaphor as a way of understanding reality. Current Issues in Philology and Pedagogical Linguistics. 2019; 1: 102-111. DOI: 10.29025/2079-6021-2019-1-102-111. (In Russ.)
Оригинальная статья УДК 81'1
DOI: 10.29025/2079-6021-2019-1-102-111
Метафора как способ постижения реальности Е.Б. Рябых
Тамбовский государственный университет им. Г.Р. Державина, Тамбов, Россия
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-1734-565X; e-mail: ekaterina_ryabykh@mail.ru
Получена: 21.12.2018 Принята: 29.01.2019 Опубликована онлайн: 25.03.2019
Резюме: В статье текст, в частности поэтический, рассматривается в свете когнитивной лингвистики как способ фиксации и трансляции индивидуального сознания продуцирующего его автора, в связи с чем проблемы выявления заложенного индивидуально-авторского смысла в процессе декодирования с целью минимизации сбоев адекватности его понимания, индивидуальной авторской метафорической интерпретации различного рода объектов, событий, их характеристик в процессе познания, а также нахождения точек соприкосновения индивидуально-авторского и коллективного, национального и универсального представляются значимыми. Индивидуальная авторская метафора рассматривается как способ постижения реальности. Отмечается, что метафора пробуждает и связывает наши воспоминания о прошлом и служит возможным ориентиром для будущего. Индивидуальная авторская метафора может выступать не только средством постижения, реконструирования (воссоздания) реальности, её конструирования, преображения, преломления под определенным углом зрения, но и средством бегства от неё. Метафорически познается только то, что представляет собой значимую часть человеческого мира, и так, как это диктуют, в частности, наш опыт, в том числе сенсорный, который «поставляет» нам сырье, из которого мы конструируем свои картины мира. На результат метафоризации оказывают влияния наши убеждения, сделанные нами на основе опыта, которые, как правило, обновляются и корректируются по мере приобретения нового опыта. Ценности наделяют значением наши убеждения. Внутренние состояния служат одновременно фильтром для восприятия и стимулом для действий (преобразованная для порождения метафоры теория Р. Дилтса). Социальные установки - направленными векторами мыслительных операций. Все вышеперечисленное является «строительным материалом», из которого формируются индивидуальные авторские метафоры.
Ключевые слова: концептуальная метафора, индивидуальная авторская метафора, интерпретация, постижение реальности, П. Целан.
Для цитирования: Рябых Е.Б. Метафора как способ постижения реальности. Актуальные проблемы филологии и педагогической лингвистики. 2019; 1: 102-111. DOI: 10.29025/2079-6021-2019-1-102-111.
Introduction. In the framework of the research, the metaphor is interpreted by us as a verbal mental construct that denotes a certain class of entities or phenomena for the characterization or naming of an object that belongs to another class, due to the comparison of two entities, phenomena on the basis of analogy or similarity between them. In cognitive linguistics, it is believed that language uses metaphorical connections that have arisen as a result of the comprehension of certain areas of experience through other areas. This is an indication that the metaphor is realized not only in the language, but also in thinking, more precisely, it is used in the language, since it has already been used in thinking [30, p. 266].
The study of the metaphor not only as a verbal but rather as a mental construct also leads to a comprehensive consideration of a conceptual metaphor with the potential of a mechanism for interpreting the world and knowledge about the world [11] and being a "knowledge transfer" [14, p. 39].
Scholarly papers review. Methods. As Zh.N. Maslova states, based on the fundamental axioms of cogni-tivism, the "fluidity", the subjectivity of the perception of the world by man, the variability and transformabil-ity of mental processes are in the focus of the researcher's attention nowadays [27, p. 9], which determines the relevance of this study. This statement is connected in a scientific way with the opinion of E.G. Belyaevskaya concerning the fact that the human factor, in fact, must transform the metaphor into the result of an individual linguo-creative process, including through the possibility of a change in focus, which is provided by the an-thropocentric factor-the change in the position of the observer, which is an important conceptual component of the metaphorical concept. In the system plan it leads to the formation of more particular metaphorical images. In a certain sense, this contradicts the theory of a conceptual metaphor that is based on evidence supporting the existence of typical metaphorical projections that reflect the mental processes involved in the process of understanding the world. Moreover, these typical metaphorical projections or metaphorical concepts are practically common for different languages [9, p. 119, 123]. With all the subjectivity of the ongoing process and the undeniable fact that all individuals pursue their own goals in their design and reflect their own vision of the world, their own "creative vein", as noted in the work of E.S. Kubryakova, manifests itself, first of all, in the selection of certain forms of the ready ones, and the creation of truly new ones is relatively rare. Although the speaker's speech reflects the subjective image of the objective world and the individual picture of the world, all this is refracted through collective information about the world, already "passed" through the language and objectified in it [22, p. 74].
We assume that the conceptual metaphor is an abstract model (invariant), which is realized every time anew as a result of its "filling" with various kinds of produced variants, based on the analysis of a set of which it becomes possible to identify typical collective conceptual metaphors reflecting the specifics of national self-consciousness [34; 35]. These options, in accordance, in particular, with Ph. Wheelwrite's concept, can be, for example, epiphors and diaphores, which are two kinds of metaphors. The tension of energy vibration, since the best epiphors are fresh, can be achieved only by successfully selecting dissimilar objects, so that the comparison occurs as a shock, which, however, is a shock to recognition in the case of creation of an epiphore based on experience. Diaphore is "movement" through those or other elements of experience (real or imagined) in a new way.
The projection of the world, or knowledge of the world, is understood as "a subjective emotional-cognitive entity that is the bearer of an individual vision (in a broad sense) and the comprehension of reality, and hence interaction with it", and is constructed by the subject "on the basis of sensory information extracted from the environment and its subsequent cognitive processing". Vision (in the narrow sense) is associated with more accurate and immediate cognition, while other channels of perception are associated with mediated knowledge [30, p. 267]. Severe visual, hearing, speech, musculoskeletal disorders, as well as intellectual development disorders, borderline emotional state (author's comment) are additional obstacles for the formation of an adequate image of the world. When there is a lack of information necessary to understand a particular phenomenon of the surrounding world, the principle of filling in the gaps begins to act, i.e. "the need to "complete" the perceptual situation by introducing into it the relevantly missing, but subjectively necessary elements in accordance with our own understanding of the given situation" [8; 32], which is reflected in the produced individual author's metaphors.
Reducing the flow of information from the environment has an adverse effect on perception. We note after V.S. Mukhina, that the potential of perception as a higher mental function can develop almost without any limits [29]. If the perception were reduced only to the passive reception of information, one could expect that mental processes would not be disrupted with time interruptions in the receipt of information, as noted by V.T. Prokopenko, V.A. Trofimov, L.P. Sharok. However, experiments with sensory deprivation showed the opposite. In isolation, the mental activity of a person is in decline. In the course of the experiment, the actors tried to compensate for the absence of external stimuli with memories or imagination, but soon imaginary pictures became obsessive and uncontrollable. It is assumed that the emerging mirages are a consequence of attempts by the psyche to compensate for the lack of structuredness of the external environment with the help of ideas extracted from memory, and thereby achieve the habitual organization of perception [33]. We emphasize that, according to the theory of O.M. Freidenberg, views organize perceptions, not the other way round [40, p. 32].
While learning the world, a person constantly satisfies the "thirst" of the brain for activity, and always a new one. And simultaneously in the brain and in the body there is a continuous automation of the repetitive activity with the formation of the corresponding memory matrices, further supporting the acquired total or semi-automatism. These two extremes in brain activity-the desire to cognize a diverse world and automation optimally form the human functional brain, where basic stereotyped activity frees the brain area for non-stereotyped activity, and non-stereotyped activity uses stereotyped one as a foundation [10, p. 271].
The key to solving the problem of how a) the linguistic personality sees the world, b) how it describes it, and c) what it actually is, is given by a modern point of view that, unlike the traditional one, argues that "a human being is the measure of everything". Therefore, human consciousness reflects the world only as it seems to him/her [7]. In accordance with the concept of U. Maturana, people construct their own reality and, moreover, construct it with the help of language [4]. As noted, the concept of "constructing the world" probably never raised the question of the correspondence of language and reality: the constructs generated by speakers were considered simply a statement of how it was understood, seen, understood by one or another described phenomenon [22, p. 74]. It is undeniable, however, that the language allows to expand and develop the boundaries of human consciousness prescribed biologically initially, by nature and to know not only the surrounding reality, but the entire universe [22, p. 42].
Since much of the reality is understood in metaphorical terms, and since our view of the world is partly metaphorical, the metaphor plays a very significant role in establishing what is real for us and how we perceive this reality [24, p. 176].
The consideration of metaphor as a way of understanding reality is the goal of this study.
How metrophors "are born". As you know, a metaphor that began its existence simultaneously with the
appearance of an ancient human being comprehending the world around him/her, "turns out to be the focus of the historical and cultural memory of the people, allowing to fully follow not only the constant national preferences, but also new meanings in finding peace" [41, p. 36]. A similar idea is expressed by N.A. Krasavsky: "In the ethnos at different times of its existence, preferences can be easily revealed in the choice of metaphor objects. They are the most psychological, as a whole, culturally relevant phenomena from the point of view of one or another human community at a particular historical time period of its development" [21, p. 179-180]. Consequently, the metaphor provides us with the opportunity for a deeper comprehension of one or another linguoculture.
It is important to note that each of us has our own picture of the world, based on internal "maps of the world" (the term of R. Dilts), which are formed using language and sensory representative systems as a result of our everyday experience. However, the individual author's metaphor, found, including in poetic texts, can not be extrasystemic and reflecting exclusively an individual view of the world, which is absolutely unique, as it simply could not be understood [see 36].
As it is noted by A.D. Koshelev, since at the initial, directly observed level of comprehension of the surrounding world, its constituent elements and the relations that link them to a certain extent are universal and they are similarly perceived by representatives of different ethnic groups, the sensory nuclear language describing this "visible world" is universal to the same extent [20, p. 143-144]. It is these "maps" that determine the way we interpret and react to the world around us, to what extent reality is determined, rather than the reality itself, what we attach to our behavior and experience [15, p. 21]. As a result of human experience, knowledge is formed, "clothed" in language structures, i.e. objectified in the language [22, p. 84]. From this it follows that knowledge reflects the social, and therefore socially significant, experience of people and that behind them there is knowledge of special "areas of the world", i.e. known "piece" of ontological reality [22, p. 89].
In addition to the experience gained through the sense organs, a human being has an information system consisting of the experience generated by the inner world, such as "thoughts", "beliefs", "values", "self-perception". This internal knowledge system creates a set of "internal" filters that focus and guide our feelings (and also omit, distort and generalize information coming through the senses). Our subjective experience is "reality" for us and has the right of priority over any theories or interpretations with which we correlate it [15, p. 22]. We interact with the world, relying on its image in our minds. We build this image (we design) based on background knowledge and current needs. As J. Taylor points out, the concept of "construction" shifts the emphasis from the conceptualized object to the subject of conceptualization, assuming a more active role of the speaker in the organization and structuring of the individual author's world [5, p. 4].
Beliefs are generalizations made by us on the basis of experience, and, as a rule, updated and adjusted as new experience is acquired. Being a model of this experience, beliefs inevitably omit and distort certain aspects of the experiences on the basis of which they are formed. Values give meaning to our beliefs and experiences and represent those "positive changes" of the highest level, for the support or reflection of which these beliefs are created. Beliefs connect values with our experiences through "cause-effect relationships". Expectations create motivation to support a certain generalization or belief. Expectations are related to the consequences to which, according to forecasts, this or that belief leads. Internal states serve simultaneously as a filter for perception and a stimulus for action. They often represent a container or foundation for a particular belief or generalization and determine the emotional energy spent on maintaining this belief. The interconnections of the various components of life experience form what R. Bandler calls the "fabric of reality" [15, p. 163-164 and others]. All of the above is a "building material", from which individual author's metaphors are formed.
It is important to note that in the process of perception and understanding of the world, focusing is always accompanied by defocusing - the ability of a person to consciously or not consciously distract from any aspects of an object or event, or partially "darken" them with respect to selected objects and properties [19, p. 60]. A visual example of what was said above is the proposed series of pictures "Playing with the Moon" by Laurent Laveder.
The isolated fragment should not only be isolated as such as a certain figure on a certain background (for example, because of its objectively existing qualitative certainty or the presence of a specific set of special perceptual properties, such as physical boundaries and outlines), but also should act for the person perceiving this fragment in the form of a "participant" of a given situation, of a particular structure of action or activity, that is, should be perceived by a human being as a fragment endowed with an undoubted pragmatic meaning and possessing special salience and relevance [22, p. 72]. This implies the possibility of expanding the terminology chain "attention - selection - focusing" by attracting the linguistic cognitive phenomenon of "salience" [22, p. 189]. It is important to emphasize the thought of E.S. Kubryakova that we focus on individual properties of objects in order to synthesize them into an integrated image, and also we have the ability to scan (move focus) both within real and imaginary objects and events [22, p. 188], which is considered to be important for understanding the mechanism of metaphorization. This idea is correlated with the principle of invariance, which allows us to create an infinite number of new metaphorical expressions that remain intelligible to the listener. The principle of invariance assumes that each constituent of the source area corresponds or can correspond to the constituent part of the target area [30, p. 270]. Undoubtedly, one should not forget about the creative potential in the process of creating an individual author's metaphor.
Discussion and results. Individual author's metaphor in the context of comprehending events of actual reality (using the example of creativity of P. Celan).
Comprehension and production of reality is an attempt of its interpreting cognition with a cognitive attitude to the reconstruction of the individual author's world through a language where there are values and orientations. For example, we conceptualize life as a gift or punishment, honey or poison, etc. Compare: The bowl of the Earth is full of/ Poisoned wine (Z.N. Gippius, Here); Rather, deplete your life with worries, / Spill the poisoned drink! (M. Lermontov, Do not Believe Yourself); Do not say that only those suffered, / Who lived their gloomy age in poverty, / Who drank the poison of life up to the last drop (A.N. Apukhtin, My excuse) or I'm calling you here to walk and chill, / To drink the honey of free and peaceful living, / To admire the sunset... (N.M. Yazykov, to M.A. Yazykova); ...sweetness of life / We drank from the same cup (N.M. Yazykov, A.N. Stepanov).
The case of the maximum manifestation of the possibilities of interpretation in the language is artistic creation. Zh.N. Maslova considers the author as an interpreter and an observer and notes that his interaction with the world around him in the creative process is not only active, but, to some extent, configured and corrected by the linguistic and poetic pictures of the world at the transpersonal level. The language and poetic picture of the world provides samples of the formation of knowledge and general directions of interpretation [28, p. 732]. Knowledge in the broadest sense is any cognitive response to information perceived through various channels about the external world and the internal state of the perceiving organism, the cognitive response of the human brain to external and internal stimuli of various nature. The brain processes external signals of both verbal and non-verbal types of action (physical stimuli of different modalities - visual, auditory, tactile, but also internal signals extracted from memory annals - arbitrarily or associatively-involuntarily [38, p. 87]. In this case, individual knowledge, inscribed in the context of the experience of the concrete interaction of a specific individual
with the world, "lived" and "experienced" by him/her as a person, from the position "for me - here - now" is "living knowledge" [see details: 16; 17].
Interpretation of the author's sense by the perceiving subject also depends on the knowledge obtained by the latter from the previous experience. Perception, as V.Z. Demyankov rightly points out, assumes active participation, co-creation of the interpreter. Different readers are capable of such complicity in different degrees, they are in different ways inclined to "float" in their perception [13]. Ideally, perception occurs automatically and does not involve solving "interpretational dilemmas". This causes the manifestation of cognitive harmony [37]. However, speaking about the metaphor, it should be noted that a wide range of interpretative decisions can be chosen, which, according to I.A. Schirova, causes a high degree of flexibility and predicts a high degree of cognitive activity of the interpreter [43, p. 934]. According to G.P. Shchedrovitsky, understanding very rarely restores exactly that sense and that content that was laid down by the creators [42, p. 483].
It should be emphasized that what we perceive, comprehend through metaphor, is a kind of echo that spreads through a network of consequences that awakens and connects our memories of the past and serves as a possible guide for the future [24, p. 171].
As an example, let us consider the work of P. Celan, who passed an amazing path from the classically flat verse to vers libre, in which not only the meaning of the ripped lines is obscured, but the destruction of verbal tissue, a kind of semantic lacunarity for the recipient, begins.
The understanding of P. Celan's poems is hampered by hermeticism, the closed nature of the images, the complexity and individual character of associations, syntax and lexical filling (Wir schälen die Zeit aus den Nüssen und lehren sie gehn: / Die Zeit kehrt zurück in die Schale; ...das schwarze Hagelkorn der Schwermut /fällt in ein Tuch, ganz weiß vom Abschied winken). At the same time, all the possibilities hidden in the language are used - the etymology of individual words, the internal - historically correct - and purely associative links between words are revealed; on the basis of models existing in the language, new words are created: die Herzzeit, die Heibstzeit, die Jetztzeit, die Hetzzeit, etc., which is associated not only with the poet's extraordinary linguistic instinct, but also with his broad linguistic education (see, for example: L. Naidich) [31].
It should be noted that P. Celan "burned", not finding more strength for an adequate expression of what was overflowing his "bleeding" heart. He perished, "and did not resolve the contradiction between the meaning-fulness of the word and the inexpressiveness, the required silence" (see: O. Barash) [31]. P. Celan's position is a more complex position, the position is already beyond the limits of psychological drama; his memory is a memory focused on the "semantic re-planning of the world", which is not only a repository of the past, but also the creator of new meanings [see: 12, p. 152-153].
For P. Celan's creativity, it is not only the use of micro-, but also macro-metaphor that is characteristic. As a rule, the recipient does not experience difficulties reprocessing several textual worlds along with hybrid worlds, embodied metaphorical means, and creating a double vision effect [see details: 6; 23; 35; etc.). For example:
Wir schliefen nicht mehr, denn wir lagen im Uhrwerk der
Schwermut
Und bogen die Zeiger wie Ruten,
und sie schnellten zurück und peitschten die Zeit bis aufs Blut... (Celan P., Brandmal)
With reference to R. Hohkhut, G. Kurts notes that artistic creativity does not require imitation of real events, but it seems very reckless to act by analogy with the way it is transmitted by P. Celan, who in his masterfully represented poem "Todesfuge" completely depicted the killing of Jews by gas in gas chambers through metaphors:
Schwarze Milch der Frühe wir trinken sie abends
Wir trinken sie mittags und morgens wir trinken sie nachts...
In this case, the metaphor "absorbs" the infernal cynicism of this reality, which in itself is immeasurably greater than the real limit, so superior that it gives the impression of the unreal, implying from this, that there is a tendency to perceive this reality as a legend, like an apocalyptic fairy tale of an incredible nature - a danger that is further exacerbated by the effect of alienation [3, p.10]. It should be noted that it is not difficult for the prepared reader to feel all the bitterness of the experience (for example, Sie kämmt dir das Salz aus dem Wimpern und tischt es dir auf... etc.).
Conclusion. Thus, speaking of a metaphor, in particular an individual author's metaphor as a way of comprehending reality, it should be noted that it can act not only as a means of reconstructing reality, transforming
it, refracting from a certain angle, but also escaping from it, a means of its veiled representation, so veiled that the unprepared reader is no longer able to correctly interpret the embedded meaning, due to which all the functional load imposed on the metaphor - to learn and comprehend reality is lost. The determination of the stated above has been made possible on the basis of an analysis of P. Celan's poetic texts, since the poetic text -
"the product of the subject's activity - is a complex cognitive model in which various aspects of the mentality and the author's being, such as psycholinguistic, linguistic, socio-cultural and historical, etc., intersect" [25, p. 144]. Thus, "metaphor allows the concepts under consideration to represent linguistic and non-linguistic, rational and irrational forms of knowledge" [26, p. 147].
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Рябых Екатерина Борисовна, кандидат филологических наук, доцент, доцент кафедры зарубежной филологии и прикладной лингвистики, Тамбовский государственный университет им. Г.Р. Державина, г. Тамбов, Российская Федерация.
Ekaterina B. Ryabykh, Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor, Associate Professor of Forging Philology and Linguistic Department, Derzhavin Tambov State University, Tambov, Russian Federation.
