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THE CAUCASUS & GLOBALIZATION
Rashad HUSEYNOV
Ph.D. (Political Science), Associate Professor at the International Relations and
Political Science Department of Khazar University
(Baku, Azerbaijan).
HISTORY OF ISLAMIC INSTITUTIONS IN AZERBAIJAN (19TH-21ST CENTURIES)
Abstract
Azerbaijan went through different political systems and historical developments in the 19th-21st centuries, which had a serious impact on the role and evolution of its government and religious institutions. During this period, Azerbaijan was under the rule of the Russian Empire, established a Democratic Republic (ADR) that lasted only 23 months, was a part of the Soviet Union for 71 years, and eventually proclaimed its inde-
pendence in 1991. This research paper studies the formation and evolution of Islamic institutions in Azerbaijan over the last three centuries and conducts a comparative analysis of their roles and functions under different rules. The author also identifies the contemporary challenges faced by the major spiritual body in Azerbaijan, especially in terms of status and scope of activities, and explores the possible responses to them.
KEYWORDS: Azerbaijan, religious institutions, formation, evolution, Sheikh-ul-Islam, Mufti, Caucasus Muslim Board.
Volume 8 Issue 1-2 2014 HHECAUCASUSnGLOBAfflZATON 79
Introduction
The origin of the main spiritual body of Muslims in Azerbaijan—the Caucasus Muslim Board (CMB)—goes back to the 19th century. As part of the religious tolerance policy, on 5 April, 1872, Czar Alexander II approved the Provision on Establishment of Two Administrations—Shi'ite and Sunni—of the Transcaucasian Clergy. They were first established in Tiflis (Tbilisi), Georgia, as it was the administrative center of the Russian Governor-General of the Caucasus. The headquarters moved to Baku following the establishment of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918 and remained in the capital of Azerbaijan during Soviet times as well. During its more than 140 years of existence under different names, this institution experienced changes in its role and functions, including division of power among Shi'ites and Sunnis, funding, appointment of leaders, and relations with state. The CMB still tries to maintain the regional center function, but political development and geopolitical changes in the region require revision of its status and mandate.
Czarist Russia's Religious Tolerance Policy and Its Implementation in Azerbaijan
The beginning of 19th century marked the division of Azerbaijan's lands between Russian and Persian empires, following two peace agreements signed in 1813 (the Treaty of Gulistan) and 1828 (the Treaty of Turkmanchay). Under these treaties, the territory of the present-day Azerbaijan Republic fell under the control of Russia. However, part of Azerbaijan's territory was occupied by the Russian army even before the 1813 Gulistan Treaty.
These developments coincided with the implementation of the religious tolerance policy in Czarist Russia, which was launched by Catherine the Great in 1767. In her Nakaz [Order] to the Legislative Commission, Catherine made a historical declaration on the question of minority religions, in which she underlined the importance of tolerance towards "other religions" and stated that ".. .not to allow them to profess different Modes of religion, would greatly endanger the Peace and Security of Citizens..."1
Implementation of the religious tolerance policy was mainly linked to the constant wars between Russia and its Muslim neighbors—the Ottoman and Persian Empires. Czarist Russia needed the support and loyalty of the Muslim population during these wars. On the other hand, this policy was aimed at ensuring efficient control over the Muslims and influencing them and their activities through the Islamic institutions, which had to be led by persons loyal to the government.
The first reflection of the religious tolerance policy in Azerbaijan was the legislative act on organization of spiritual life of Muslims in the Caucasus signed by Czar Alexander I on 30 June, 1805. The main purpose of the document named Rules for the Mohammedan Clergy of the Yelizavetpol District was to strengthen the imperial position in the newly-occupied Ganja Khanate. Its center, Ganja, was renamed Yelizavetpol in honor of Czar Alexander's wife, Elizabeth. The document was initiated and drafted by General P.D. Tsitsianov, who was Chief Commander in Georgia. According to the legislative act, residents of the Yelizavetpol district could freely worship under the leadership of eight mullahs appointed by the Russian administration. The mullahs in turn were subordinated to the Akhund—primary religious servant. All of them were appointed to the staff with annual salaries (the mullah received 100 rubles and the akhund 500). In their Friday messages, the mullahs had to promote "loyalty to His Majesty the Emperor."2 General Tsitsianov also proposed tough punishment
1 W.F. Reddaway, Documents of Catherine the Great, Cambridge, 1931, p. 289.
2 D.Yu. Arapov, Sistema gosudartvennogo regulirovaniia islama v Rossiiskoi imperii (posledniaia tret XVIII-nachalo XX vv.), Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 2005.
THE CAUCASUS & GLOBALIZATION
for treason cases, which could entail exile of religious figures and their families to Siberia and confiscation of their property. However, Alexander I deleted the proposed punishment from the final document.
One of the important developments was the establishment of the position of Sheikh-ul-Islam in Tiflis, which was the administrative center of the Russian Governor-General of the Caucasus, in 1823.3 The holder of this post had to deal with the Shi'ite community in Transcaucasia. Nine years later, in 1832, a similar position—Mufti—was established for the Sunni communities of the region. The first Sheikh-ul-Islam was Akhund Mahammadali Huseynzade, while the first Mufti was Tajuddin Musta-fin. However, we cannot interpret these developments as establishment of a religious institution because both the Sheikh-ul-Islam and the Mufti operated independently. In an effort to start the institutionalization of religious affairs in Transcaucasia, on 29 November, 1832, Russian Czar Nicholas I sent a letter to the Senate that suggested drafting Provisions on the Administration of Religious Affairs of Muslims in Transcaucasia. However, the Senate did not approve them.4 The process was also delayed because of the Caucasian War (1817-1864) and the Crimean War (1853-1856).
The first official institution dealing with the spiritual life of Muslims in Transcaucasia was established in 1872. On 5 April, 1872, Czar Alexander II approved the Provisions on Establishment of Two Administrations—Shi'ite and Sunni—of the Transcaucasian Clergy. The same year, the Russian government decided to allocate 37,880 rubles from the state budget for the maintenance of these bodies.5
Thus, the Provisions signed by Alexander II established a three-level administration system of spiritual life in Transcaucasia. The first level included mullahs and cadies. Mullahs were in charge of running the religious ceremonies, administration of the mosques and religious schools, as well as keeping the mosque register and the list of the Muslim population. They reported to the cadies about mosques, schools, births, marriages and so on. Cadies in turn had to monitor the work of the mosque clergy and deal with family (marriage and divorce) and inheritance issues. The second level included the collegial bodies—provincial majlises (assemblies), which consisted of three members and operated in the Baku, Yelizavetpol, Tiflis, and Irevan provinces. They dealt with issues relating to the religious behavior of the Muslims, administration of religious schools, management of mosque property, and complaints about the decisions of cadies. The highest instances (third level) for Shi'ites and Sunnis were the Sheikh-ul-Islam and the Mufti, respectively. Each of them received an annual salary of 1,600 rubles from the state budget, which was equal to the salary of a colonel in the Russian army ' s infantry in 1872. Both the Sheikh-ul-Islam and the Mufti were appointed by "the Highest Command" of the Czar on the recommendation of the Governor-General. This practice continued for nine years, and in 1881 the Ministry of Internal Affairs acquired the authority to nominate candidates for these posts for the Czar's approval.
The key functions of the spiritual administrations included the following:
■ Considering complaints relating to the decisions of provincial assemblies;
■ Supervising cadies, who had to submit information about mosques, schools, and other institutions;
■ Drafting annual reports and educational programs for Muslim schools;
■ Testing the knowledge of religious figures;
■ Considering and discussing all issues submitted by the Highest Russian Administration.6
3 See: A. Abasov, Islam v sovremennom Azerbaidzhane: obrazy i realii, Publication of the Sakharov Museum and Public Center, Issue 4, Azerbaidzhan i Rossia: obshchestva i gosudarstva, Moscow, 2001.
4 See: "Religion," Administrative Department of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Presidential Library, p. 4, available at [http://files.preslib.az/projects/remz/pdf_en/atr_din.pdf].
1 See: D.Yu. Arapov, op. cit.
6 D.Yu. Arapov, Islam vRossiiskoi imperii (zakonodatelnye akty, opisaniia, statistika), Moscow, 2001, pp. 50-53.
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In accordance with the Provisions on the Administration of Spiritual Affairs of Muslims in Transcaucasia, the management of waqfs7 was run under common rules for the Shi'ites and Sunnis. All personal property and real estate donated to the mosques, religious schools, cemeteries, and other spiritual institutions by legal means was under the jurisdiction of the local clergy and power structures above them. They could be used for maintaining the clergy, upkeep of personnel, and charity activities. Supreme control over waqfs was conducted by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Governor-General in the Caucasus.
The staff members of the Transcaucasian Muslim clergy also enjoyed a number of privileges:
■ They and their children were released from public obligations;
■ Children of supreme Muslim religious figures, who served for 20 years, enjoyed the same rights as individual nobleman;
■ Mullahs and cadies were entitled to receive travel expenditures and per diems during visits;
■ Muslim religious figures could also receive state pensions.
Thus, a sufficiently sustainable system, which organized the spiritual life of the Muslims in Transcaucasia, survived until 1917.
The State of Islamic Institutions Following the Collapse of the Russian Empire
The political developments in the Russian Empire in 1917 had a serious impact on the political and geopolitical situation in Transcaucasia. The two revolutions in 1917 put an end to Czarist rule in Russia and established the Soviet Government, which was actively promoting atheism. The Bolsheviks, as atheist materialists, considered religion to be the "opium of the people," to coin Marx's famous formulation. It was no coincidence that one of the first decrees adopted by the Bolsheviks was seizure of all church property and bank accounts. However, the Muslims received different treatment from the newly-established authorities. The appeal issued by the Council of People's Commissars to Muslims on 3 December, 1917 stated: ".Your beliefs and practices, your national and cultural institutions are forever free and inviolate... Know that your rights, like those of all the peoples of Russia, are under the mighty protection of the revolution..."8
In the meantime, the sacred Islamic monuments, books, and objects confiscated during Czarist Russia were returned to the mosques: the Sacred Koran of Osman was ceremoniously handed over to a Muslim Congress in Petrograd in December of 1917.9 Friday, the day of Muslim religious celebration, was declared a legal day off in the Muslim-populated areas.10
The strategic goal of the Bolsheviks was to find a common language with the Muslims and make them allies in their internal struggle against the Mensheviks. Another strategic target was export of "the world revolution" to the East. The appeal of 3 December, 1917 was part of this policy. However, all these efforts were turned down during Josef Stalin's rule in the late 1920s. We will come back to this stage later on.
Meanwhile, quite important political developments were in progress in the Transcaucasian region. In 1918, three independent states were established in this region: Azerbaijan, Georgia, and
7 A waqf is an inalienable religious endowment in Islamic law, typically donating a building or plot of land or even cash for Muslim religious or charitable purposes.
8 E. Allworth, Muslim Communities Reemerge: Historical Perspectives on Nationality, Politics, and Opposition in the Former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, Duke University Press, 1994.
9 See: A. Avtorkhanov, ImperiiaKremlia, Vilnius, 1988, p. 99.
10 See: A. Park, Bolshevism in Turkestan, 1917-1927, New York, 1957, p. 214.
THE CAUCASUS & GLOBALIZATION
Armenia. The Azerbaijani National Council announced the establishment of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) on 28 May, 1918, which was the first democracy in the Muslim world. The ADR was a secular state, in which religion was separate from the state. Restoring its historical name, Ganja was announced the temporary capital of the Republic, as Baku was still under the control of the Bolsheviks.
In October 1918, the ADR established a new state agency dealing with religious affairs—the Ministry of Social Protection and Beliefs. Musa bey Rafiyev was the first head of this Ministry. Chairman of the National Council Mahammad Amin Rasulzadeh also gave instructions for a common religious board of the Caucasian Muslims to be established in Baku on the basis of the religious administrations operating in Tbilisi. On 11 December, 1918, Czar-appointed Sheikh-ul-Islam Muhammad Pishnamazzadeh resigned and Minister Rafiyev appointed Agha Alizadeh as the new (eighth) Sheikh-ul-Islam and Head of the Joint Religious Board of the Caucasian Muslims. Alizadeh was quite a progressive person, who supported the work of the parliament and was against sectarian discrimination. However, his position and the work of the newly-established institution were terminated after the invasion of the Bolsheviks on 27 April, 1920. Azerbaijan lost its independence following the establishment of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic on 28 April, 1920.
As mentioned above, religious life in Azerbaijan and other areas of the Soviet Union experienced difficult times during the rule of Josef Stalin. The most intensive "secularization" process occurred in 1925-1941. The Soviet government turned most of the mosques, especially in the villages, into schools or clubs. There were cases of demolition as well. For instance, the White Mosque in Tyumen was turned into a pencil factory, while the Red Mosque (in Tomsk) became an alcoholic beverage plant.11 A number of mosques and spiritual places were destroyed in Azerbaijan as well. The famous Bibi-Eybat mosque in Baku, a historical architectural monument of the 13th century, was fully destroyed by the Bolsheviks in 1936. A Union of Militant Atheists was established in 1925 and played the assault detachment role of cave atheists with the slogan "Struggle against religion—struggle for socialism."
However, some liberalization of religious policy was observed in the mid-1940s, for which there were two reasons:
■ The war [WWII] contributed to the consolidation of religious communities, including Muslim circles, which could not be ignored by the government;
■ Reference to religious feelings in the war years could promote "the consolidation of Soviet people."12
This change also had a positive impact on religious affairs in Azerbaijan. In particular, the Religious Board for the Transcaucasian Muslims resumed its work in 1943. Akhund Agha Alizade was elected the head of this institution at the first session of the Transcaucasian Muslims held in Baku on 25-28 May, 1944. There were two important developments during the resumption of the work of the Religious Board:
Agha Alizade became the first elected Sheikh-ul-Islam (the leaders of the religious communities in Transcaucasia elected him), as previous holders of the title of Sheikh-ul-Islam were appointed by the relevant government agencies;
The resumed religious body put an end to the dualism in administration. The Sheikh-ul-Islam became the only leader of the organization, while the Mufti started serving as the first deputy of the department chair and dealt with Sunni community-related affairs.13
It is noteworthy that Agha Alizade and subsequent heads of the Religious Board for the Trans-caucasian Muslims served as Sheikh-ul-Islam until their death.
1 See: T.S. Saidabaev, Islam i obshchestvo, Nauka Publishers, Moscow, 1975, p. 151.
2 Ibid., p. 170.
3 See: "Religion," Administrative Department of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Presidential Library, p. 5.
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In the meantime, the Soviet government established a special state agency—the Council on Religious Rites Affairs, which had its own authorized representatives in the regions. The Council had to ensure communication between the U.S.S.R. government and heads of religious associations on issues such as the organization of religious rites and ceremonies, which required the permission of the government. In 1964, this body was transformed into the Council on Religious Affairs under the U.S.S.R. Council of Ministers, which was responsible for facilitating the "patriotic and peaceful activities" of religious associations. However, later the Council and its authorized representatives became a lever of government control over the religious life of the people.
Unlike Czarist Russia, the Soviet government did not fund the work of religious organizations. Akhunds and imams received their salaries based on donations and income from religious services. Most income was obtained during the Kurbanbayram (Eid al-Adha), Ramazanbayram (Eid al-Fitr), and Ashura commemorations. This income also allowed them to cover utilities.
Although religion was officially separate from the state, the Soviet government interfered in religious affairs, including the organization of rites and other public ceremonies, by maintaining the authority to permit or prohibit religion-related events.
Haji Allahshukur Pashazade was the last head of the Religious Board of Muslims in Transcaucasia, who was elected in 1980. The religious body survived until the collapse of the Soviet Union and emerged in a new role in independent Azerbaijan.
The Muslim Board in Independent Azerbaijan: Main Challenges and Possible Responses
On 18 October, 1991, Azerbaijan restored its independence. The Supreme Council (Parliament) of Azerbaijan adopted a Constitutional Act on the State Independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan. Four years later, on 12 November, 1995, the Azerbaijani people voted for a new Constitution, which declared Azerbaijan a secular state. In particular, Article 18 of the Constitution states that "religion in the Republic of Azerbaijan is separate from the state."
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Religious Board of the Transcaucasian Muslims transformed into the Caucasian Muslim Board (CMB), which was due to the intention to cover the activities of Muslim religious communities in the Northern Caucasus as well. In fact, the CMB was mainly responsible for organizing the spiritual life of the Muslims in Azerbaijan, as well as appointing akhunds and imams of the mosques. Following the practice established during Soviet times, the Sheik-ul-Islam remained the primary position in the CBM, while the Mufti served as the first deputy.
Beginning in July 2011, the CMB and other religious communities in Azerbaijan started receiving funding from the state budget. According to a presidential decree signed on 1 July, 2011, the government also started financing the work of the CMB's representative offices in foreign countries.14 In addition, the Government supplies free gas to places of worship, including 1,956 mosques, 13 churches, and 7 synagogues. The government also sponsored construction of a number of mosques, churches, and synagogues.
The decision of the Azerbaijani authorities to establish a State Committee on Work with Religious Associations (SCWRA) led to reexamining the share of religion-related duties in the
14 Official website of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan [http://president.az/articles/2674].
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country. The Committee was established on 21 June, 2001. Its major duties included registering religious communities, ensuring the implementation of freedom of religion-related legislative acts, facilitating cooperation between the religious organizations of Azerbaijan and international religious organizations and forums, drawing up academic curricula for religious education in the country, and providing expert opinion on improving its quality, as well as participating in signing intergovernmental agreements for organizing pilgrimage to holy places abroad.15 However, the Committee has neither a supervisory function nor appointment power over the CMB and other religious communities.
The CMB, in turn, has the authority to issue fatwas16 on urgent religious matters, which is the responsibility of its Gazi (Confessor) Council consisting of akhunds, imams, and religious scholars. The CMB claims that its Council's fatwas are in force throughout the Caucasus region, which remains a debated issue among local scholars and political experts. The new wave of debates was caused by a recent statement of the head of CMB's fatwa department, who affirmed that the CMB is the only organization eligible to issue fatwas in the Caucasus region.17 This poses a reasonable question: "How can a fatwa issued by a religious community in Azerbaijan, which has NGO status, be valid in the territory of other sovereign states?" Apparently, the CMB representative refers to the mandate this organization received during Soviet times, which made the CBM a regional center. However, today, there are four independent states in the Caucasus region, including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and the Russian Federation, and each state (except Armenia) has its own religious administration for the Muslim population with similar duties. In particular, Georgia established its own religious body few years ago,18 which is in charge of organizing the spiritual life of the Muslims living in Georgia. Most of the religious communities in the Northern Caucasus (Russian Federation) do not in fact recognize the superiority of the CMB, as they are subordinated to the centralized body in their own country. These circumstances also pose a second question concerning the name of the main spiritual body in Azerbaijan. There are suggestions that the word "Caucasus" should be dropped from the name of this organization. The local experts suggest changing the name to the Azerbaijan Muslim Board and limit its scope of activities solely to Azerbaijan.
Another issue of concern is the official status of the CMB in Azerbaijan. This organization is registered by the SCWRA as an ordinary religious community, like another 587 communities in Azerbaijan,19 and has an NGO status. However, it is not clear why the CMB has superiority over other Muslim communities in the country and the authority to appoint akhunds and imams in the mosques of Azerbaijan. One way to address this issue would be to adopt a legislative act on specialized organizations, like the Caucasus Muslim Board, which would give more clarity to their institutional status.
Sources of CMB financing and the transparency of expenditures continue to be problematic areas in the activity of this organization. The CMB never makes public the total amount of money it receives from donations, which mainly come from organizations and individuals in mosques and sacred places, and does not report on how the organization spends them. This behavior raises questions about the transparency of the CMB, which can be addressed by means of an open and fair policy in this field.
15 Official website of the State Committee on Work with Religious Associations of the Republic of Azerbaijan [http:// www.scwra.gov.az/pages/126/?].
16 Fatwa is the term for legal opinion or learned interpretation by qualified persons on issues pertaining to Islamic law and events.
17 See: "CMB Issues Warning," Lent.az web portal, 21 January, 2014, available at [http://news.lent.az/news/152867].
18 See: "Georgia Established New Muslim Affairs Department Independent of Azerbaijan," IslamToday portal, 13 May, 2011, available at [ http://en.islamtoday.net/artshow-229-4063.htm].
19 According to the State Committee on Work with Religious Associations, as of February 2014, the number of registered religious communities constitutes 588, including 567 Muslim and 21 non-Muslim communities.
THE CAUCASUS & GLOBALIZATION
Thus, the Caucasus Muslim Board needs to revise its mandate and consider carrying out structural reforms in order to make the work of this organization more practical and efficient, as well as gain the trust of believers in Azerbaijan. The latter appears to be the most important target in light of the widespread radicalization trends in Islam.
Conclusion
The major Muslim spiritual body in Azerbaijan—the Caucasus Muslim Board—has experienced a number of changes in status and roles since its establishment in 1872. For instance, the Head of the Board, i.e. the Sheikh-ul-Islam, transformed from an appointed position to an elected one; although the Sheikh-ul-Islam and the Mufti possessed equal power in the 19th century, the Soviet government put an end to dualism and gave the Sheikh-ul-Islam a superior role, while the Mufti started holding the first deputy position; during the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union, the government used the religious body as the main lever of control over believers, which is not the case since Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence. Nevertheless, as noted above, the geopolitical changes in the region and the emergence of new challenges are opening up room for new changes aimed at ensuring the efficient and tangible work of the Muslim Board in Azerbaijan.
