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POWER ENGINEERING
Original article EDN: GGTPIU
DOI: 10.21285/1814-3520-2024-4-534-549
Green energy systems for powering electric vehicles considering telecommunication system with case study of Pakistan
Muhammad Bilal Ali^, Syed AM Abbas Kazmi2
12National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Abstract. The objective is to analyze the sustainability and efficiency of Pakistan's telecommunication sector by developing a framework for base transceiver stations integrating renewable energy and charging stations. Various renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, biomass and hydropower were considered as the object of research. The following methodological steps were implemented in this work: site analysis; determination of optimal sizing of plants, energy storage systems and electric vehicle charging stations; cost-benefit analysis methods; greenhouse gas emissions estimation; and system design methods for integrating selected renewable energy sources and energy storage solutions, taking into account the operational requirements of the base transceiver stations. It is found that switching to hybrid renewable energy systems can significantly reduce dependence on diesel generators. It is shown that operating costs can be reduced by more than 80% compared to conventional diesel-fueled systems. Also, the introduction of hybrid renewable energy sources can lead to significant reductions in CO2 emissions. The integration of battery storage systems has been shown to improve the reliability of energy supply by ensuring uninterrupted operation during periods of high demand and blackouts. The proposed structure scheme for base transceiver stations is designed to accommodate future growth in the share of electric vehicles and technological advancements in renewable energy and electric vehicle charging. By prioritizing the integration of renewable technologies along with charging station infrastructure, telecom service providers in Pakistan can reduce their carbon footprint and operational costs. This approach not only addresses the unpredictability of the electricity grid, especially in rural areas, but also positions the telecoms sector as an active participant in global efforts to combat climate change.
Keywords: electric vehicle charging stations, base transceiver stations, battery storage system, technical, economic and environmental assessment, renewable framework
For citation: Bilal Ali M., Abbas Kazmi S.A. Green energy systems for powering electric vehicles considering telecommunication system with case study of Pakistan. iPolytech Journal. 2024;28(4):534-549. https://doi.org/ 10.21285/1814-3520-2024-4-534-549. EDN: GGTPIU.
ЭНЕРГЕТИКА
Научная статья УДК 621.31
Зелёные энергетические системы для электромобилей с учётом телекоммуникационной системы на примере Пакистана
Мухаммед БилалАли1 , Сайед Али Аббас Казми2
12Национальный университет наук и технологий, Исламабад, Пакистан
Резюме. Цель - анализ устойчивости и эффективности телекоммуникационного сектора Пакистана путем разработки структуры для базовых приемопередающих станций, объединяющих возобновляемые источники энергии и зарядные станции. В качестве объекта исследований рассматривались различные возобновляемые источники энергии, такие как солнце, ветер, биомасса и гидроэнергия. В работе реализованы следующие методологические этапы: анализ местности; определение оптимальных размеров установок, систем накопителей энергии и станций зарядки электромобилей; методы анализа затрат и выгод; оценка выбросов парниковых газов; методы проектирования системы для интеграции выбранных возобновляемых источников энергии и решений по хранению энергии с учетом эксплуатационных требований базовых приемопередающих станций. Установлено, что переход на гибридные системы возобновляемой энергии может значительно снизить зависимость от дизельных генераторов. Показано, что эксплуатационные расходы могут быть снижены более чем на 80% по сравнению с традиционными системами, работающими на дизельном топливе. Также внедрение гибридных возобновляемых источников энергии может привести к значительному сокращению выбросов CO2. Показано,
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2024;28(4):534-549
© Bilal Ali M., Abbas Kazmi S.A., 2024 534 _
что интеграция систем хранения аккумуляторов повышает надежность энергоснабжения, обеспечивая бесперебойную работу в периоды высокого спроса и отключения электроэнергии. Предложенная схема структуры для базовых приемопередающих станций разработана с учетом будущего роста доли электротранспорта и технологических достижений в области возобновляемых источников энергии и зарядки электромобилей. Отдавая предпочтение интеграции возобновляемых технологий наряду с инфраструктурой зарядных станций, поставщики телекоммуникационных услуг в Пакистане могут сократить углеродный след и эксплуатационные расходы. Такой подход не только решает проблемы, связанные с непредсказуемостью электросетей, особенно в сельских регионах, но и позиционирует телекоммуникационный сектор как активного участника глобальных усилий по борьбе с изменением климата.
Ключевые слова: зарядные станции электромобилей, базовые приемопередатчики, накопители энергии, технико-экономическая и экологическая оценка, возобновляемые источники энергии
Для цитирования: Билал Али Мухаммед, Аббас Казми Сайед Али. Зелёные энергетические системы для электромобилей с учётом телекоммуникационной системы на примере Пакистана. iPolytech Journal. 2024. Т. 28. № 4. (In Eng.). С. 534-549. https://doi.org/10.21285/1814-3520-2024-4-534-549. EDN: GGTPIU.
INTRODUCTION
A key element of economic growth and development is electricity. Consequently, a nation's ability to use energy is a must for its development. The telecom industry needs electricity to deliver reliable services to potential customers. The significant increase in the use of wireless communication networks in recent years is supported by a number of indicators, including the COVID-19 pandemic. Since many businesses and organizations now want their employees to work from home or finish their coursework online, wireless communication is more crucial than ever in the modern world. Man-made greenhouse gas emissions need to be decreased in light of the growing body of evidence demonstrating the effects of climate change on a global scale [1].
Cellular network operators must construct more telecommunication towers to meet the growing demand for telecom services in order to improve transmission and provide extensive coverage [2]. In rural areas with unpredictable grid electricity, telecom companies have challenges. Diesel generators (DG) are required when demand is high, increasing CO2 (GHG) emissions and exacerbating the effects of global warming. Renewable energy sources like solar, wind, biomass, hydro, and tidal are essential for driving telecom towers [2]. Diesel oil accounts for over 80% of energy costs for off-grid tower locations, making it the main expense. Effective design, upkeep, and technical development are crucial for the highest return on investment, accounting for factors such as emissions, energy efficiency, and operational scenarios [3].
Two tactics to assist reduce global warming include promoting energy-efficient devic-
es and raising consciousness of the consequence of reducing power consumption in hometowns and the telecom industry. Numerous scholars are trying to find solutions to these problems in different ways. Promoting renewable energy resources is the most reliable, cost-effective, environmentally pleasant, and well-liked alternate strategy. In an attempt to improve long-term energy supply systems, a lot of emphasis has been paid to the development of different renewable energy sources. Hybrid renewable energy sources (HRES) are dependable, carbon dioxide-free systems that successfully lessen dependency on a single renewable resource in areas with limited natural resources [4]. Integrating renewable energy sources is an emission-free method of producing energy that supports a district's geography and functions as a dependable prospective energy source for remote generating applications, claim [5, 6]. Large-scale wind, solar, and residential PV installations are all comprised in the renewable energy capacity shown. The production collects extra power from the grid throughout the day and releases it at night since most residential PV systems are on-grid systems. HRES can be operated individually for each household or in microgrids (MGs), that link many homes to create a power grid, in remote areas wherever grid extension is not practical [7-9]. The recent literature is shown in Table 1.
Interest in HRES has increased as a result of the fast-increasing demand for energy, environmental concerns, the depletion of fossil resources, fluctuating energy prices, and the need to power off-grid equipment. However, cultural, economic, environmental, and technical factors need to be taken
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Table 1. Recent works on technical, economic and environmental assessment Таблица 1. Последние работы по технико-экономической и экологической оценке
No. Location BTS sites Method Technical characteristic components Objective functions and explicitly considered variables Load type
PV WE DG EV BA LCOE IRR ROI SA
1 Australia [10] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ IL
2 Cameroon [11] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X X DOMS
3 Iran [12] X IGOA ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ COM
4 India [13] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ DOM
5 Nigeriya [14] X HOMER ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ DOM
6 India [15] X HOMER ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ AGR
7 India [16] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ RSD
8 Pakistan [17] X HOMER ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ COM
9 Bangladesh [18] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ RSD
10 India [19] X HOMER ✓ X X X ✓ X X X ✓ RSD
11 Tunisia [20] X HOMER ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ COM
12 Saudi Arabia [21] X HS, PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ DOM
13 Egypt [22] X HOMER ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X X COM
14 India [23] X HOMER ✓ X X X ✓ X X X ✓ COM
15 China [24] X HOMER X ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ IND
16 Thailand [25] X HOMER ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ IL
17 Iraq [26] X HOMER ✓ X X X ✓ X X ✓ ✓ RSD
18 Europe [27] X GA, PSO ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ DOM
19 Africa [28] X HOMER ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ DOM
20 India [29] X HOMER ✓ X X X ✓ X X ✓ ✓ DOM
21 South Korea [30] X HOMER ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ COM
22 Saudi Arabia [31] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ IND
23 China [32] X HOMER ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ IL
24 India [33] X GA, PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ AGR
25 Pakistan [34] X HOMER ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ DOM
26 Turkey [35] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ RSD
27 Saudi Arabia [36] X HOMER ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X ✓ X COM
28 Bangladesh [37] X HOMER ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ DOM
29 Northeast India [38] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ DOM
30 South Korea [39] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ COM
31 Southern Turkey [40] X HOMER ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ RSD
32 Saudi Arabia [41] X HOMER ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ DOM
33 Pakistan [42] X HOMER ✓ X X X ✓ X X ✓ ✓ AGR
34 India [43] X HOMER ✓ X X X X X X X X DOM
35 Namibia [44] X HOMER ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ RSD
36 East Malaysia [45] X HOMER ✓ X X X ✓ X X ✓ ✓ DOM
37 Colombia [46] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ DOM
38 Yamen [47] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ ✓ X DOM
39 Malaysia [48] X HOMER ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ DOM
40 Iran [49] X HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ IND
41 Chile [50] X HOMER X ✓ X X X ✓ X ✓ X RSD
42 Saudi Arabia [51] X PSO ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ DOM
43 Australia [52] X PSO ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X X DOM
44 Proposed Study (Pakistan) ✓ HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ TELEC
Note: SA - Sensitivity analysis, PV - Photo-voltaic, DG - Diesel generator, EV - Electric vehicle charging station, IRR - Internal rate of return, IL - Island load, DOM - Domestic, COM - Commercial, AGR - Agricultural, RSD -Residential, IND - Industrial; TELEC - Telecom base transceiver station (BTS) load, WE - Wind energy, BA - Battery, LCOE - Levelized cost of energy.
into account for an HRES design to be really sustainable. Creating a successful HRES dispatch plan also requires comparing various dispatch strategies in terms of technological, economical, ecological, and social concerns. In addition to reducing stakeholder costs associated with managing load demand, this initiative seeks to improve social standing and reduce environmental degradation. The authors were motivated to conduct additional study and write a paper on the topic by the hybrid renewable energy system's integrated techno-economic-environmental-socio-tech-nical design with an appropriate dispatch strategy for telecommunication demands. The techno-economic-environmental analysis of integrating renewable resources (solar, wind, biomass, and hydro) with electric vehicle charging stations and battery storage systems with base transceiver stations in Pakistan's telecom industry forms the basis of this proposed study's detailed review.
OVERVIEW OF ASSESSMENT METHOD
The details assessment method is explained below.
Step 1: Optimal sizing of HRES system:
- design components of proposed hybrid BTS system;
- simulation computer tools required to optimize renewable resources.
Step 2: Results and Discussion:
- optimization outcomes of standalone and On-Grid EV's based hybrid BTS sites;
- optimal renewable resources and energy storage to optimized HRE Plants.
Step 3: Conclusion.
OPTIMZAL SIZING OF HRES SYSTEM
Some of the ideal size issues linked with HRES systems include approximating the system parmeters and components with the highest capacity while also taking feasibility and reliability restrictions into consideration. It is observed that this research is predicat-
ed on the implementation of HRES grids and only optimal generating and storage unit sizing is taken into account through the use of optimization techniques [53, 54]. In this scenario, governments often plan and build HRES networks. As a result, the distribution of grid installation on HRES systems is not sufficiently well-documented for cost analysis. Additionally, producing and storage facilities are usually located near rural regions, therefore the HRES grid is far less expensive than traditional power networks [55].
Design components of proposed hybrid BTS system. In this proposed study, multiple cites of BTS are taken from all over the Pakistan including north, south and central region. Therefore, the existing BTS have only diesel generator and battery bank. While the proposed BTS have renewable resources (wind, solar, biomass and hydro) with electric vehicle charging stations and battery storage system. The comparison of components of existing and proposed BTS sites are shown in Table 2. The existing and proposed BTS infrastructure is shown in Fig. 1.
The detail components of HBTS system are shown in Fig. 2. The advantages and disadvantages of renewable resources are shown in Table 3.
Simulation computer tools required to optimize renewable resources. The challenges confronting the energy industry are complex and interrelated. Energy modeling methods help solve problems in the energy business. Many tools with a wide variety of uses, ranges, and scopes are available. The correct tool can accomplish the intended energy aims, even though no energy tool can address every problem facing the sector. A mechanism that may combine all renewable resources in a more long-term way and have techno-economic-environmental analysis at least at the national level was required for this research project. The specific features of a number of tools are listed below in Table 4.
Table 2. Comparison of existing and proposed BTS system components
Таблица 2. Сравнение компонентов существующей и предлагаемой системы BTS
Diesel generator Battery storage system On-grid Solar Wind Biomass Hydro EV charging station
Existing System ✓ ✓ X X X X X X
Proposed System ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Fig. 1. Proposed BTS system infrastructure
Рис. 1. Инфраструктура предлагаемой системы BTS
• DR (9.75 *1 ■ Ч«пот1Ы» Fraction
Commercial СИ Comport, «« Tc^pocar^ D,«.l Ну<МВ:отаиСад,л| ^P^™"' -IBISSW ■ Cap««» Shora*
Raduson Sp«a сом Cott Co« CM -N-2Synn 'teitMr
1 i I I I I I I 11 1 111
Load Type Emission Data Technical Data Energy Resources Emission Details System Details System Constraints
1 1 i
INPUT PARAMETERS
Charging Cycle (CC)
► CONTROL STRATEGY
Load Following (LF)
1
Components of hybrid BTS system
.............J-
T
Fuel consumed 1. Diesel Generator
Renewable Energy Resources
1. Solar Energy
2. Wind Energy
3. Hydro Energy
4. Biomass Energy
Storage System 1. Battery storage system
Electric vehicle charging stations
1. Level 2 Office
2. Managed Office
3. Highway Charger
4. Overnight Charger
5. Deferrable Charger
6. On demand Charger
Optimization
Output Data
SIMULATION & ANALYSIS
Sensitivity
DR (7.75 - 8.75 • 9.75 -10.75 - 11.75 %)
IR( 6.5 -7.5 -8.5 -9.5 -10.5%)
Solar (4.05 • 4.55 - 5.02 - 5.55 • 6.05 kWh/m'/day)
Wind < 3.60 - 4.11 4.61 - 5.11 - 5.61 m/s)
Load (1664- 186.4 206.4 - 226.4 - 246.4 kWh/day)
Lifetime (5-10- 15-20-25 yrs)
LCOE NPC CAPEX RF EE IRR ROl PBP ICC ОС COi emission
(S/kWh) (SM) ($> (%) (%> (%l (yrs) ($M) (SM) (kg/year)
Fig. 2. Proposed HBTS system components Рис. 2. Компоненты предлагаемой системы HBTS
Билал Али Мухаммед, Аббас Казми Сайед Али. Зелёные энергетические системы для электромобилей с учётом...
Table 3. Advantages and disadvantages of renewable resources Таблица 3. Преимущества и недостатки возобновляемых ресурсов
Renewable energy sources Global share Advantages Disadvantages Top countries
Solar Energy [56, 57] 24.70% • Economical • Low maintenance • Longer life • Easy installation • Technical maturity • Larger land acquisition • Toxic material deposition • Relative lower efficiency • High initial costs • Intermittent • Susceptible to storms • Japan • China • Germany • United States
Wind Energy [58, 59] 25.26% • High efficiency • Greater technical maturity • Easy installation over land and water • Lower environmental impact • Reduce dependency on fossil fuels • Minimal water usage • Larger land acquisition • Intermittency and reliability issues • High initial costs • Noise and visual impact • Wildlife impact • Difficult to transport • United States • China • India • Germany
Biomass Energy [56, 57] 9-10% • Reliable and Sustainable • Versatile Energy source • Sustenance rural economies • Less dependency on fossil fuels • Compatible with existing infrastructure • Higher efficiency • Reduction of waste material • Carbon emissions • Deforestation and habitat use • Land and water resource use • Lower energy density • Air pollution • High cost for large scale production • Seasonal availability and storage • United States • China • Brazil • Germany • India • Sweden • Finland
Hydro Energy3 [60] 44.47% • Renewable and reliable • Low greenhouse gas emission • High energy efficiency • Flexible and adjustable power • Supports water management and irrigation • Long lifespan • Low operating costs • Flood and erosion • Displacement of communities • High initial costs • Risk of drought and water dependency • Lon construction time • Potential for methane emission • China • Brazil • Canada • United States • Russia • India • Norway
Table 4. A detailed overview of simulation tools to optimize renewable resources use
Таблица 4. Подробный обзор инструментов моделирования, используемых для оптимизации использования возобновляемых ресурсов
Tool name Developer Time-step Analysis type Accessibility
AEOLIUS Karlrsuhe Minutes Simulation only Commercial
Balmorel Individual Hourly Simulation, Balancing & Optimization Free
CREST NREL Hourly Optimization only Free
DER-CAM Micro grid team, Berkeley lab Hourly Optimization & Balancing Free
EnergyPLAN Aalborg University, Denmark Minutes Simulation only Commercial
E4cast ABARE Yearly Optimization & Balancing Commercial
ENPEP National Laboratory, USA Yearly Balancing only Free
EVST NREL Hourly Simulation & Optimization Paid
EMPS SITEF Weekly Simulation & Optimization Commercial
Gatecycle GE Hourly Simulation Only Paid
GridLAB-D PNNL Seconds Simulation only Free
HOMER NREL Hourly Simulation & Optimization Free + Paid
Helioscope Folsom Labs Minutes Simulation & Balancing Paid
INFORSE Europe Secretariat Yearly Balancing & Optimization Paid
Electricity from renewable resources: status, prospects, and impediments // Internet Archive. Available from: https://archive. org/details/electricityfromr0000nati/page/n7/mode/2up [Accessed 30th September 2023].
2024;28(4):534-549 ISSN 2782-6341 (online)
Продолжение табл. 4
IKARUS Institute of Energy Research Yearly Optimization only Commercial + Free
Invert EEG Yearly Simulation & Optimization Free
Kom Mod Fraunhofer IES Hourly Simulation only Unknown
LEAP Stockholm Institute Monthly & Daily Simulation & Optimization Paid
MESSAGE IIASA 5 years Optimization & Balancing Free
Mesap PlaNet IER Any Simulation & Optimization Commercial
NEMS EIA Weekly Balancing only Free
PVWatts NREL Hourly Simulation only Free
PVsyst PVsyst SA Minutes Simulation only Free
PERSEUS Karlsruhe University Typical days Simulation & Balancing Free + Paid
ProdRisk SINTEF Hourly Simulation & Optimization Commercial
RETScreen CEDRL Hourly Simulation & Balancing Free
REopt NREL Hourly Simulation & Optimization Free
ReEDS NREL Yearly Simulation only Free
SAM NREL Hourly Simulation & Optimization Free + Paid
SimREN iSUSI Minutes Simulation only Paid
WASP IAEA Yearly Simulation & Optimization Commercial + Free
Windographer AWS true power Hourly Simulation & Optimization Paid
Windpro EMD international Hourly Simulation & Optimization Paid
RESULT & DISCUSSION
In this section, result and discussion of proposed study is described. This section is separated into two sessions, one is "Optimization outcomes of Standalone and On-Grid EV's Based Hybrid BTS Sites" and second is "Optimal renewable resources and energy storage to optimized HRE Plants".
Optimization outcomes of Standalone and On-Grid EV-based Hybrid BTS Sites. It can be seen that, in this planned study, the 42 BTS sites from all over Pakistan is selected. It is evident that all objective functions (LCOE, ICC, NPC, and OC) and financial pa-
rameters (IRR, ROI, and PBP) are fulfilled following the combination of renewable resources (solar, biomass, hydro, and wind energy) with battery bank. The optimized output of standalone hybrid BTS sites are shown in Table 5.
The objective and financial parameters achieved by On-Grid EV's based hybrid BTS sites are revealed in Table 6. It can be seen that after integrating different types of electric vehicle charging stations and renewable resources (wind and solar) with battery storage system and grid, all objective and financial parameters are achieved.
Table 5. Optimized output parameters of standalone hybrid BTS sites
Таблица 5. Оптимизированные выходные параметры автономных гибридных BTS площадок
BTS site names Objective parameters Financial parameters Renewable resources and storage system On-grid and EV charging stations
LCOE ICC OPC NPC IRR ROI PBP £ Wind Biomass Hydro Battery On-Grid EV's
Chakwal ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X X
Islamabad ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Jhelum ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Rawalpindi ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Talagang ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X X
Taxila ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Bajaur ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Dir ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ X X
Mardan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ X X
Chitral ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X X
Swat ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ X X
Bilal Ali M., Abbas Kazmi S.A. Green energy systems for powering electric vehicles considering telecommunication system... Билал Али Мухаммед, Аббас Казми Сайед Али. Зелёные энергетические системы для электромобилей с учётом... Продолжение табл. 5
Kohat ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Nowshera ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Buner ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ X X
Peshawar ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Abbottabad ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Kohistan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ X X
Mansehra ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ X X
Gilgit ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Mingora ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Malakand ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ X X
Kamri ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ X X
Mirpur ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ X X ✓ X X
Muzaffarabad ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ X X ✓ X X
Lahore ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Sheikhupura ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X X
Bhakkar ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X X
Khushab ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Mianwali ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
DG Khan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X X
Layyah ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ X ✓ X X
Karachi-I ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X ✓ X X
Karachi-II ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X ✓ X X
Badin ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X ✓ X X
Hyderabad ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X ✓ X X
Mirpur Khas ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Ghotki ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Rajan Pur ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X ✓ X X
RahimYar Khan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Sukkur ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Gawadar ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Quetta ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X ✓ X X
Table 6. Objective and financial parameters of On-grid EV-based hybrid BTS sites
Таблица 6. Объективные и финансовые параметры гибридных BTS площадок на базе On-grid EV
BTS site names Objective parameters Financial parameters On-grid and EV charging stations
LCOE ICC OPC NPC IRR ROI PBP PV Wind Battery On-Grid EV's
Islamabad ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
Jhelum ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
Bajaur ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
Kohat ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
Peshawar ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
Abbottabad ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
Mingora ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
Muzaffarabad ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
Lahore ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
Mianwali ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
Karachi-I ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Badin ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Hyderabad ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Rajan Pur ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
Quetta ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
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Optimal renewable resources and energy storage to optimized HRE Plants. In addition to computer software, authors have produced a number of novel models to address situations in which computer tools are not relevant. These models include a variety of commonly reviewed algorithms, such as GA, MCA, PSO, FL, or a combination of these approaches. Table 7 provides a summary of all the research based on these mathematical techniques. The advantages of these cutting-edge techniques are not thoroughly discussed in this article because it concentrated more on the computer tools method.
In conclusion, different techno-econom-ic [64] assessment methods are needed for HRES at the national, regional, and building scales since analytical criteria and concerns vary from scale to scale. Therefore, this paper suggests a framework for the HRES tech-no-economic analysis shown in Fig. 3, based on scale characteristics and research emphases. The following is an explanation of some promising approaches along with the associated inputs and outputs. The analysis takes a more macroscopic approach when examining systems at the national or international level. For example, it focuses more on whether the associated emissions and technology can meet the needs of national development, but
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it aims for less cost-effective outcomes. Because money is not a major issue for a nation when compared to a local location. Rather, socioeconomic viability is gathered as a crucial metric. Therefore, it is important to consider conditions such as LCOE, import/export policies, carbon taxes, and incentive programs beforehand. Furthermore, the most important technological restricting elements to be taken into account are the availability of resources (such as acquisition difficulty) and the possibility for RE use.
In this paradigm, regional systems are separated into two groups: those in state, federal, government property, cities, and industry, and those in remote, domestic, or island locations. The former is incorporated into the framework at the national level because they still have substantial territories. However, as they are all part of stand-alone systems, the latter always employ techniques and technologies similar to those used by building systems. A few factors should receive extra attention since techno-economic analysis for HRES in buildings requires solid and comprehensive system designing, in contrast to systems. First, it is crucial to research the weather because the available renewable resources are always changing. The installation specifications of certain components,
Table 7. A detailed description of technical and economic studies with developed models/algorithms Таблица 7. Подробное описание технико-экономических исследований с разработанными моделями/ алгоритмами
Location Selected renewable sources Proposed approach Selected algorithms Objective functions Ref.
Germany Solar & Hydro REMoD-D Mathematical numeric optimizer Annual cost [61]
Ontario Solar, Wind, Hydro, Hydrogen & Biomass Silver model Linear optimization Total generated cost [62]
Japan Solar & Wind Top-down - - [63]
Agricultural Solar & Biogas Homan method [65] Net present value method NPV [65]
Public building Solar - MATLAB Algorithm Life cycle cost [66]
City Solar & Wind Computer program - Total cost [67]
India Solar, Wind, Hydro, Biomass and Hydrogen Multi-node - Total cost [68]
Residential Solar, Wind & Hydrogen Optimization model GA & PSO Total cost [69]
New Zealand Geothermal, Wind, Hydro & Biomass Analytical approach - Energy Spillage [70]
City Solar & Battery - Differential evolution LCOE & LCC [71]
Commercial Solar, Wind & Battery - Firefly inspired COE [72]
Industrial Solar, Wind & Battery - Multi-objective grey wolf COE [73]
Australia Solar, Wind, Hydro, Biomass & Geothermal Computer program - Energy consumption [74]
Fig. 3. Proposed framework for a standalone system and a complex hybrid system Рис. 3. Предлагаемая структура для автономной и сложной гибридной систем
such as the number and slope angle of PV, the number and hub height of WT, the options for battery capacity, etc., are also crucial considerations.
Second, the primary financial limitations are the costs of system equipment and local
energy prices. Thirdly, natural influence should be taken into account when installing RE projects. This means that original structures such as farms, plants, landscapes, natural conserved areas, or small-scale elements (for islands) shouldn't be destroyed.
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Furthermore, the foundation of RE projects is local support and public acceptance. Another important consideration is the target people's comfort and convenience, as designed systems are meant to serve them. In particular, while creating systems for resorts, the original landscape and tourism development should not be compromised. Not to be overlooked is the seasonal load change brought on by the tourist peak. One can choose the points that meet the specific analysis and determine the aforementioned spatial scale requirements before beginning to examine a system. The most suggested tools, HOMER, RETScreen, and H2RES, can then be used to acquire detailed output results that include economic, technical, and environmental performance. Generally speaking, this architecture consists of three processes for systems, whether they are large-scale or standalone. First, the key characteristics and needs of a certain system type and spatial scale are noted. The best models or tools are then recommended. The techno-eco-nomic evaluation may finally be carried out in its entirety thanks to the encouraging simulation findings and outputs that were offered in the framework's last step. The suggested tools can effectively support HRES on their respective scales within this framework [75].
Through scenario analysis, energy balance, system configuration optimization, relevant indicator calculation, etc., they are utilized to solve techno-economic assessment problems in an efficient manner. Numerous applications mentioned in this study and on these six tools' official website demonstrated their exceptional capacity to direct practices. Therefore, the suggested framework is successfully validated using the aforementioned workable tools in addition to the real inputs taking into account the numerous limiting considerations mentioned at the outset. In addition to helping system designers understand potential carelessness and other factors that should be taken into account when developing diverse energy systems, it can offer a very efficient means of doing future research in the field of HRES techno-economic analysis at various spatial levels.
CONCLUSION
Growing demand for power Providing consistent electricity to connected loads is be-
coming more challenging due to the sporadic nature of individual renewable resources. The intermittent nature of HRES may be addressed by an efficacious and enduring energy storage system, which lowers maintenance costs and, consequently, the overall operating expenses of the system. However, when paired with storage bank system, hybridization can help mitigate the sporadic nature of HRES. Flywheels, compressed air energy storage, hydrogen fuel cells, super capacitors, super conducting magnetic energy storage, pumped hydro energy storage, and battery storage systems are some of the energy storage options offered by HRES. Compared to a battery and other storage systems, the integrated system delivers improved round-trip efficiency, increased reliability of the power supply, reduced revenue losses, cost savings, a low investment cost, maximum accessible energy, a longer lifespan, and less greenhouse gas emissions. According to earlier research, two of the most useful HRES storage options are freshwater resources.
The following ideas have been put up to conquer the previously described confrontation to the ideal sizing of HRES acceptance with ESS combination:
• The present state of HRES technology, when combined with ESS, may cover several problems with the earlier technology, such as capacity, competence, and dependability. The extent to which this innovation will be further developed for upcoming usage in MG technology has been selected. Energy sizing, cost, safety, and efficacious management are becoming the attention of study.
• For the components of the HRES and ESS systems to scale adequately, intelligent procedures (meta-heuristic approaches) must be collective used with the right control settings, or more efficacious methods must be established. It might be argued that the hybrid GWOPSO optimization approaches are the finest at accomplishing the objective of an ESS in combination with a reliable, cost-effective, and ecologically friendly HRES.
• HRES needs an ESS that associates the features of a high-power and energy storage system in order to decrease power quality problems and improve system stability and reliability. High-energy ESS devices react more slowly and have a longer lifespan, whereas high-pow-
er devices assistance temporarily from rapid reactions at high rates. Combining both of these ESS types could result in improved power quality with connected loads.
According to many study results, FITs for loads in grid-connected HRES must be achieved by supplying excess energy to the grid. Consequently, a greater proportion of HRES currently use renewable sources. In order to lower power costs and generate revenue for the municipal, the FIT enables users to sell their excess energy to the grid. To optimize component size based on emission, reliability, and economic functions, new software tools and meta-heuristic optimization methodologies are required. Meta-heuristic optimization methods work better for scaling HRES. However, current software tools, including the HOMER software, are incompetent to address multi-objective problems. It is also difficult to deploy demand-side management response systems using this software. After that, software may be used, allowing designers to more freely size HRES systems.
The summary of prospective research projects of techno-economic evaluation in HRES
for all spatial scales based on the gaps and current research progress is explained below:
• Setting a maximum limit for the share of possible RE is crucial to preventing excess energy output during the integration of RE sources into a system. Currently, there are a few indicators that quantify this limit, but the most of them were created for EnergyPLAN software assessments. One goal to be accomplished in the future is to define more types of measurement indexes that apply to various tools.
• At the moment, self-built analysis models and programs are highly independent but insufficiently flexible. Usually, authors who are in their own region at comparable spatial scales invent them first, then use them. To build on their advantages and increase their adaptability, these various models and programs can be integrated and used in various case studies in subsequent projects.
• Develop a set of comprehensive assessment metrics suitable for HRES at all sizes, from building to global. Create an integrated techno-economic evaluation system or HRES model for all scales to improve assessment's efficiency and convenience.
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INFORMATION ABOUT THE AUTHORS ИНФОРМАЦИЯ ОБ АВТОРАХ
Muhammad Bilal Ali, Билал Али Мухаммед,
Cand. Sci. (Med.), PhD scholar к.м.н.,
in Electrical Engineering (Power) Scholar, научный сотрудник Американо-Пакистанского
U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy, центра перспективных исследований
National University of Sciences and Technology, в области энергетики,
Islamabad 44000, Pakistan Национальный университет наук и технологий,
Н [email protected] 44000, г. Исламабад, Пакистан
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8797-8519 М [email protected]
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8797-8519
Билал Али Мухаммед, Аббас Казми Сайед Али. Зелёные энергетические системы для электромобилей с учётом...
Syed Ali Abbas Kazmi,
Associate Professor,
U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan [email protected]
Аббас Казми Сайед Али,
доцент Американо-Пакистанского центра перспективных исследований в области энергетики,
Национальный университет наук и технологий, 44000, г. Исламабад, Пакистан [email protected]
Authors' contribution
Muhammad Bilal Ali performed the research, developed research methodology, provided software support, validation, conceptualization, visualization. He also wrote an original copy of the article, edited and formatted it. Syed Ali Abbas Kazmi collected data, performed formal analysis, dealt with resources, review, editing and supervision of the article.
Conflict of interests
The authors declare no conflict of interests.
The final manuscript has been read and approved by all the co-authors.
Information about the article
The article was submitted 08.10.2024; approved after reviewing 30.10.2024; accepted for publication 20.11.2024.
Заявленный вклад авторов
Билал Али М.: исследование, методология, программное обеспечение, проверка, концептуализация, визуализация, роли/написание - первоначальный вариант, написание и редактирование, форматирование. Аббас Казми С.А.: сбор данных, формальный анализ, ресурсы, обзор и редактирование, надзор.
Конфликт интересов
Авторы заявляют об отсутствии конфликта интересов.
Все авторы прочитали и одобрили окончательный вариант рукописи.
Информация о статье
Статья поступила в редакцию 08.10.2024 г.; одобрена после рецензирования 30.10.2024 г.; принята к публикации 20.11.2024 г.
