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EXPRESSING THE UNSPEAKABLE: SOME OBSERVATIONS ON
KIM JEONGHYI'S (1786-1856) ORCHID PAINTING* («Орхидея» Ким Чжонхи (1786-1856) как метафора просветления)
В статье на основе анализа содержания, биографического и культурно-исторических контекстов альбомного листа «Орхидея» кисти корейского художника и каллиграфа Ким Чжонхи предпринимается попытка прочитать смысл произведения, определить традиционные и уникальные авторские выразительные приемы, обобщенные в его концепции синтеза пластических искусств и художественного слова.
Ключевые слова: Корея, Ким Чжонхи, история искусства, синтез искусств, каллиграфия, Буддизм, орхидея.
"It was no easy task to tame the barbarians' language. One quick three-week-old autumn, the brothers were sitting in their cell, trying to write out the letters that men would later call Cyrillic. <.. .> They were not getting anywhere. Then Methodius called his brother's attention to four jugs standing on the window of their cell, but outside, on the other side of the bars. 'If the doors were locked, how could I get to one of those jugs?' he asked. Constantine broke one of the jugs, then drew the fragments piece by piece through the bars and into the cell, where he reassembled the jug, bonding it with saliva and clay from the floor beneath his feet. This they now did with the Slavonic language: they broke it into pieces, drew it into their mouths through the bars of Cyril's letters, and bonded the fragments with their saliva and the Greek clay beneath the soles of their feet."
Pavic, Milorad. Dictionary of the Khazars.
I recall this passage from the Dictionary of the Khazars about creating the Cyrillic alphabet each time I feel the urge to analyze the phenomenon of a different culture, for this is how our mind works: we have to break a whole cultural object into pieces and then, by comprehensive analysis, draw fragments piece by piece through the bars of cultural differences and depths of time, and finally reassemble it in our mind, bonding pieces of this puzzle with the clay of knowledge and personal experience, moisturized with personal perception. Though what we've got at this level looks almost like the completion of investigation, it is only a bare framework for the ac-
© Artemova A, 2014
* See figure on p. 257.
tual objective of any art analysis - interpretation, or what this piece of art means, or, completing the jug analogy - what was inside that jug?
My main object is an oeuvre of Kim Jeonghyi, one of the outstanding Korean literati painters and calligraphers of the 19th century, whose Winter Landscape and Orchid appear among the most popularized examples of traditional Korean fine art of late Choseon period. The researcher Kang Gwansik even calls them the "twin pearls" of Kim's artworks, for, apart from simply demonstrating the plasticity of his painting and calligraphy style, they represent the core idea of artistic creation as a synthesis of painting, calligraphy and literature.
The subject of this paper is Kim's Orchid painting with inscription, which is believed to be the last artwork of his lifetime, or at least the latest noteworthy of his extant works, and considered to be the quintessence and final point of his lifetime creative journey. The purpose of my work is to examine and investigate, and consequently to get the message of this painting and understand the way it is delivered to the audience. I am not suggesting that the interpretation I'll be giving here is the only way to read or interpret the above-mentioned work of art, it is more like some notes on observations I came up with while working on a topic. "I am alone with this thing, and it is up to me to evaluate it in absence of available standards. The value which I shall put on this painting tests my personal courage"1. Anyway, if a painting could be fully transmitted to the audience or exhaustively explained by means of any other medium including words (which is what my essay is made of), it would be unnecessary to paint it with paints. The words just point the reader in the direction of experience or idea which was the initial point of creation of this work of art and thereby help him/her find an appropriate way to read it for themselves.
Notes on definition and Kim's general concept of art
Before I read this art piece I need to technically "identify" it. Although this may sound scholastic, a definition is possible only within a fixed system where every term matters and raises many questions itself. In Kim Jeonghyi's case, only a clear definition will help us understand his core ideas and art concept with regard to this specific artistic piece.
To begin with, is this picture a painting in terms of basic art studies? And what is the real object of this painting if it really has one? To the first question, the answer is "no." The artistic technique of Asian ink-brush
painting cannot qualify as painting, since the European genesis of this artistic practice requires at least expression with color and shape, not mentioning the fact that it was originally created with paint, e.g., oil paint or tempera which are pretty time-consuming materials and can be alternated in the process. Watercolor seems to be a technique most similar to ink painting, but it does not exactly qualify as painting as well. Moreover, it has more is common with the graphic arts, and so does ink painting. I can generalize and say that painting primarily deals with color and refers more to the emotional sphere, while in the graphic arts the basic elements are dots (spots), strokes and lines, and they refer mostly to the mind, which makes the graphic arts similar to handwriting (the word "graphic" has the Greek root grapho, "to write," for a reason): they both have a minimum instrumental medium between the mind and the paper, which (be it a pen or a pencil) works like the needle of an oscillograph, responding to every emotional or mental vibe of the creator.
From this point of view, the idea of synthesis of the graphic arts and calligraphy does not look so new even for European culture anymore, not mentioning the cultures with hieroglyphics for a writing system that never fully forget the pictographic origins of their script. Why did it seem so new to Kim Jeonghyi and his followers? Maybe the reason lies in many practical uses of the fine arts - ranging from simple greeting pictures to religious images - they serve a wide range of human needs. Maybe Ch'usa stood against painting as a craft and wanted it to be an art, so he tried to find a type of painting which served best the needs of art - ultimate self-expression, combining art with self-reflection and meditation as well. So this provides an answer to the second question. If the core of art is self-expression, then a perfect art piece ought to be a mindscape - a slice of the state of mind at some uniquely important moment of life, which the creator wants to share with someone: a like-minded friend or future generations, or all of the above. The whole thing works as a metaphor for the recipient of the work of art, while the latter itself has no object.
The Orchid painting ("Non-dualistic orchid" ^"PpMEK or "Non-depicted orchid" ^ftmW - Ch'usa has not put a name on this artwork, so it is commonly called by putting the first or the last lines of the painting's accompanying poem before the word "orchid," treating the expression "orchid [painting]" as a genre definition. I shall call it just the Orchid for the sake of simplicity) is a 55x31.1 cm album leaf. The picture's caption says that it was made as a gift to Kim's student named Taljun (whose actual
identity remains a mystery) and was nothing more than a draft. Then Kim's friend O Gyuil who was Kyujanggak's official eventually saw the picture, completely "fell for it" and took it away. However, the album leaf was preserved first by Kim Seokchun, Ch'usa's favored follower and then by many others. Now the Orchid (as well as the Winter Landscape) is part of a private collection.
There is no direct information on the date of this work - it has no dating inscription, and collections of Kim's poems compiled by his followers after his death (where we could possibly find the poem from the Orchid) are neither readily available nor very useful due to their messed-up structure. Certain circumstantial evidence leads most scholars to relate it to Chusa's latest years - a period from the end of his banishment to Chejudo in 1848 to the new banishment to Pwukcheon in 1851, or, according to Kang Gwansik, even to his last years after the Pwukcheon exile in 18511852 till his death in 1856.
The life of Kim Jeonghyi happens to be a good example of classical biography of a Confucian gentleman in Korea. He was born into a noble family and displayed sure signs of the divine gift of calligraphy at an early stage. He also was very gifted and used every opportunity to study that his family could provide - Kim was being raised surrounded by talented relatives and erudite acquaintances in the atmosphere of a renewal of diplomatic relations with Qing China, which in turn caused a renewal in Korean culture. Once he visited China with his father and his talents became acknowledged by the outstanding scholars Weng Fanggang 17331818) and Ruan Yuan (Kot:, 1764-1849). Kim continued to correspond with them after his return to Korea and even considered them his spiritual mentors in art and study. Although he was not taking up any official position for a long time, he gained an authority among cultural elite which provoked jealousy as much as admiration. The unstable political situation caused by king Sunjo affected Kim clan's fate as well. Kim Jeonghyi was banished to Chejudo in 1840, but even then he walked his path of a Confucian gentleman, retaining mental virtues despite the spirit of despair caused by misfortunes in his family life, and continuing his studies and artistic pursuits. This was a time when the Winter Landscape - a masterpiece of ultimate Confucian culture - was created. In 1850, after several years of hardships, his honor and status were restored only to suffer again till 1852 in Pwukcheong's banishment. At last, in his late years he moved to Kwa-
cheon where he lived near his father's grave. It was then that he converted to Buddhism.
However, this interest in Buddhism did not emerge all of a sudden, as it was always in the background of Kim's life as a part of Korean culture he lived in. Moreover, there are many instances of his deep interest in theoretical issues as well as in Buddhist practices - he copied the Buddhist sutras sent by Weng Fanggang, wrote several poems referring to Buddhist themes, used Buddhist terminology and word play, maintained a close relationship with his friend, the monk Choyi ^^ (1786-1866), and even corresponded with Paekphafi±$ S^(1767-1852) - a Korean Buddhist patriarch of that time - discussing philosophical issues of Buddhism and Confucianism.
What is the Orchid about? Any culture can be pictured as a canvas which consists of different type of "threads." In traditional Korean culture, the most fundamental threads are shamanism and Altaic roots2, Buddhism and Confucianism. Threads of each type are organized in a certain subsystem; it is only together that they create the pattern we call a culture, but in a given case one of these subsystems can play a leading role. Although the story of the Orchid usually begins with the "Four Confucian gentlemen" painting tradition, the more I think of it, the less Confucian it appears to me. Of course I cannon simply ignore its Confucian background and will point out some commonly known things:
1. As one of the "Four Confucian Gentlemen" or the so-called "Four Noble Plants," in China orchid is listed first, being associated with spring -the beginning of life. It is also the first challenge for those who learn to paint. However, in Korea it represents summer - life in full blossom3.
2. Orchids symbolize inner purity and generosity: a noble hermit spreads his wisdom like an orchid spreads its essence, remaining unseen.
However, the Orchid does not look especially fresh and noble; it is painted in defiance of the important rules of painting orchids from the Mustard's Seed Garden's Painting Manual. Not looking very noble and refined it can hardly represent spring or summer, it is more likely to be an old and brittle plant blossoming into a single flower for the last time in winter, the end of life cycle, standing against the wind. Once again, Kim Jeonghyi embodied in a graphical form an image of himself in current circumstances. This initial dissonance makes the personification of the Orchid even more dramatic, although it does not explain the choice of an orchid - why not a pine tree or any other plant?
The answer can be found in this orchid reference in a commentary on the Chinese Book of Changes:
1) "When two people share one heart, the power of this union breaks iron. Words spoken in this union have the essence of an orchid flower."
The orchid is crucial because of its "communicational" analogy. It is also a symbol of friendship, and for Kim it has a more personal meaning as he was working on orchid paintings together with his close friend Kwon Donin iBifct (1783-1859).
What is Ch'usa's message to his closest friends? The textual part of the Orchid consists of 4 inscriptions arranged spirally around the image of the flower. The text is as follows:
la) Did not paint an orchid flower for twenty years
Then painting went out by it[self\from the center of the skies
I locked the door (locked myself in concentration) and searched for the place
Where Yuma found the gate ofnonduality
itb^HS^-fi
lb) This is like a man who was stubbornly filling his mouth with fruit [and then] suddenly stood before Vairocana and greeted him without words. (Ch 'usa)
2) Thesese unusual characters of running script [combined] with clerical script create their own framework. How could people understand, how could they learn it? (Kogyen's writing)
kimm^&m^Kmmmmu^mitxmi^im)
3) Having started working with the "free brush" technique, Taljun could achieve union [with the master], but could not achieve duality {a deviation from the master).* Seongaek Noin (Kim Jeonghyi's seal)
* OR: First, I made this painting as a gift to Taljun. Made once, it cannot be repeated.
tmmnmp^(Aisep)
4) O Sosan have seen [it] and have taken [it] away. Funny, isn't it?
As we can see, the literary part of the Orchid gives us a clear hint that it has to be decrypted in a Buddhist way. This treatment is uncommon for the previous tradition of orchid painting in Korea, but it has definitely established its own tradition that can be traced in Korean art history to this day. To understand the poem (la), we must look to the most obvious reference - the Yuma story or, more exactly, the VimalakTrti Nirdesa Sutra, a Mahayana Buddhist sutra which is interesting to us at least in three respects:
1. Yuma (or Vimalakirti) was a sage who lived in the world, and Kim Jeonhyi associated himself with Yuma a lot.
2. The sutra teaches, among other subjects, the meaning of nonduality and it was Yuma who had fully understood its meaning:
"Then the crown prince Manjusri said to the Licchavi Vimalakirti, 'We have all given our own teachings, noble sir. Now, may you elucidate the teaching of the entrance into the principle of nonduality!'
Thereupon, the Licchavi Vimalakirti kept his silence, saying nothing at all.
The crown prince Manjusri applauded the Licchavi Vimalakirti: 'Excellent! Excellent, noble sir! This is indeed the entrance into the nonduality of the bodhi-sattvas. Here there is no use for syllables, sounds, and ideas' "4.
nMXftmiJFmmm: m^&smB, tttiifffti ^mmmm^Mno xmmmm ■. ! #
! »SItii, if, J
3. There is a story known in English as the Flower Sermon (Ni-it {!&'?<, literally "pick up a flower, smile subtly"), in which Sakyamuni gives a wordless sermon about nonduality to his disciples by holding up a white flower. No one in the audience understands the Flower Sermon except Ma-hakasyapa, who smiles, and his smile signifies a direct transmission of wisdom without words.
There are three levels of knowledge defined in Buddhism. The first one is based on uncontrolled desires provoked by the emotional sphere rather than on logic. The second level is based on logical reasoning and leads to philosophical and scientific knowledge. It works only inside its conceptual definition. Intuitional knowledge of the third level is free from every dichotomy as it overcomes the limits of the definition of subject and object. This is a synthetic view of the world, the experience of absolute consciousness, the state of mind allowing Eternity to be understood and, furthermore, actualized. "Entering the Gate of nonduality" means achieving the highest level of knowledge - Bodhi, or Enlightenment - when the mind or the sub-
ject of knowledge is no longer distinguished from the object of knowledge. Manjushri's question has no articulate answer because it refers to infinity in terms of logic, and therefore cannot be solved in the framework of rational discourse. It can be answered only in the state of Enlightenment in which questions as such cannot exist any more, since their objective can no longer be defined from the standpoint of universal infinity. That is why Yuma (Vimalakirti) answers the nonduality question the same way Buddha himself answers the question about the core of existence.
To sum up: we can state that, in this mindscape, the Orchid represents Kim Jeonghyi himself in his perishable state, when he realizes the true meaning of nonduality via practicing Buddhism and nonduality in art which helps him attain the state of a Buddha. Once in that state, he transmits -with the help of a flower - this knowledge to the world. He has a close friend who must have experienced the same, and there is another one who understood and smiled - О Kyuil in the last epigram. Finally, the whole thing is a metaphor for the Great Enlightenment.
Sources
1. A Great Synthesis of Art and Scholarship. Painting and Calligraphy of Kim Jeong-hui ЩЩ ^И)- Thongch'eon Mwunhwasa (М^г-зИ"), Seoul 2006.
2. Beauty of Korea. Volume 18: "Flower and Birds" and "Four Noble Plants" paintings. Ш 18 ТЕJlHUfi). Chwungan Ilpo (Ф^ВФ^), Seoul, 1995.
3. Beauty of Korea. Volume 20: Ch'usa Kim Jeonghyi (ШЩЩ Ш 20 Chwungan Ilpo (Ф^ 0 Seoul, 1993.
4. Kim Jeonghyi The full compendium of the works of Wandang. (Ы:1?-. /t'k ifij. Yengwondang, Kyengseon, 1934.
5. The Mustard Seed Garden Painting Manual. (In Russian, translation and commentary by Eugenia Zavadskaya). Moscow: Main Department for Oriental Literature, 1969.
Online sources
6. СВЕТА (Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association) Chinese Electronic Tripitaka http://www.cbeta.org/
7. DB of Korean Classics http://db.itkc.or.kr/
8. Chinese Text Project http://ctext.org/
Selected bibliography
9. Belozerova Vera. The Art of Chinese Calligraphy (in Russian). RSUH, Orientaba et Classica Series, Moscow, 2007.
10. Lama Anagarika Govinda. Psychology of Early Buddhism (translated to Russian). "Andreev and Sons" Publishing, St. Petersburg, 1993.
11. Lama Anagarika Govinda. Creative Meditation and Multi-Dimensional Consciousness (translated into Russian). Belovod'ye, Moscow, 2006.
12. Encyclopedia of Chinese Culture. Volume 2: Religion and mythology (in Russian). Oriental Literature, Moscow, 2007.
13. Buddhism: Psychological Aspects (in Russian). Novosibirsk, Academic Publishing, 1991.
14. Buddhism: Philosophical Issues (in Russian). Novosibirsk, Academic Publishing, 1984.
15. Korean culture symbol dictionary (^H^fcl^ífíífíjttr). Tong-a, Seoul 1992.
16. Ch'oi Swunthaek (ÍÉlolÍ!). Calligraphy and Painting of Seon (Zen) in Korea Pi*It). Hanmwun-sa, Seoul, 1998.
17. Ch'usa and his time (^KW A| l[| j. Tolpaegea, Seoul,2002.
18. Francis Mullani. Symbolism in Korean Ink Brush Painting. GLOBAL ORIENTAL LTD, 2006.
19. Ilyon. Samguk Yusa. Legends and History of Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea. Translation: Tae-Hung Ha, Grafton K. Mintz. Seul, Korea: Yonsey University Press, 2004.
_Notes
1 Just as Professor Leo Steinberg mentions in the preface to a collection of his essays on Art History. It is funny how working with Korean traditional art is closely similar to working with Modern art - both initially developed in a field which lies outside habitual comprehension, and both cannot be understood without additional data.
2 While it is clear that orchids grew in the Korean Peninsula, there is not much evidence of orchids in early Korean culture. With the prevalence of tree cult, the herbaceous orchids could not stand the comparison and played a minor role in culture.
There is a legend of how orchids were created by the spirit of the Chirisan Mountains - Holly Mayago. She had made a dress of strings fashioned from tree bark and was awaiting her beloved Panya on the top of a mountain, but he was
attracted by Stellaria (or starweed) flowers down in a dale nearby. Mayago tried to catch up with him but failed. Furious, she tore her dress and its pieces hung on trees and became tree orchids, while she herself turned into stone.
A reference to orchids can also be found in the Samkwuk Yusa: king Swuro treated the princess of Authaya with wine made of orchids.
According to Richard Beer's Tibetan Symbols Encyclopedia, in the Tibetan version of the "Four Noble Plants," summer is represented by lotus, which may be an indication that the two plants were associated with one another in cultures influenced by Buddhism.
Vimalaklrti Nirdesa Sutra / Transl. by R.A.F. Thurman. The Pennsylvania State University, 1976.
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