CC BY
23Russian Journal of Nematology, 2012, 20 (2), 141-155
Entomoparasitic nematodes of the genus Skarbilovinema: S. laumondi and S. lyoni (Nematoda: Tylenchida), parasites of the flies of the family Syrphidae (Diptera), with phylogeny of
the suborder Hexatylina
1 1 12 Vladimir N. Chizhov , Natalia N. Butorina and Sergei A. Subbotin '
1 Center of Parasitology of A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Leninskii Prospect 33, Moscow 117071, Russia ! Plant Pest Diagnostics Center, California Department of Food and Agriculture, 3294 Meadowview Road, Sacramento, CA
95832-1448, USA; e-mail: [email protected]
Accepted for publication 21 September 2012
Summary. Morphological description of two entomoparasitic nematodes, Skarbilovinema laumondi and S. lyoni, parasitising flies from the genus Helophilus and Eristalis of the family Syrphidae (Diptera) are given. The life cycle of these nematodes is also presented. Phylogenetic analysis using the D2-D3 expansion fragments of the 28S rRNA gene and partial 18S rRNA gene sequences showed that Skarbilovinema has a sister relationships with Fergusoria sp. Sequence analysis revealed an anomalous mode of evolution for the ribosomal RNA genes in Skarbilovinema, which have long insertions, strong AT nucleotide content bias and a high mutation rate. Difference in the D2-D3 expansion segments of 28S rRNA gene sequences between S. laumondi and S. lyoni was 23%, which is higher than usual sequence variation for nematode species belonging to same genus. Several long insertions make 18S rRNA gene and the D2-D3 of 28S rRNA gene the longest ribosomal rRNA genes in nematodes. Key words: 18S rRNA, 28S rRNA, Eristalis, Helophilus, life cycle, morphology, phylogeny.
In 1991 a new genus of entomoparasitic nematode Skarbilovinema (Tylenchida: Iotonchiidae) with two species: S. laumondi and S. lyoni parasitising hoverflies of the genera Helophilus and Eristalis (Syrphidae) was described by Chizhov and Zakharenkova (1991) and Zakharenkova and Chizhov (1991). These authors also studied the life cycle and biological peculiarities of these species. After analyses of the ultrastructure of the body wall of parasitic and infective females of S. laumondi, Subbotin et al. (1993) found that the parasitic female is covered with numerous interwoven microvilli uptaking nutrients from the haemocoel of the host insects. The study of phylogenetic relationships of S. lyoni with other tylenchids using the D2-D3 expansion fragments of 28S rRNA gene sequences showed that Skarbilovinema was closely related to entomoparasitic nematode from the genus Wachitylenchus. In this paper we provide
additional data on morphology and phylogenetic positions of Skarbilovinema species within the suborder Hexatylina.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Nematode samples. Entomoparasitic nematodes of the genus Skarbilovinema were collected for morphological and molecular studies from the flies of the family Syrphidae (Fig. 1) in the European part of Russia: Moscow and Yaroslavl regions, and foothills of the North Caucasus in the Stavropol Territory. Several other entomoparasitic nematode species were collected for molecular study: Howardula phylotretae from flea beetles Phyllotreta spp., Howardula sp, from an unidentified beetle and Allantonema mirable from Eylohius sp. in Moscow region, Russia. Several unidentified hexatylin nematodes collected from soil samples in California and Florida, USA were also included in the phylogenetic analyses.
Morphological and biological studies.
Skarbilovinema nematodes were extracted from the flies and initially fixed with the 4% solution of TAF under conditions of heating up to 55 C. Nematodes were processed in glycerol and embedded on permanent slide using standard methods. Drawings and measurements of nematodes were made from permanent slides employing a Carl Zeiss microscope with Axio Image AI objective. Both immobilized and live nematodes were photographed. The life cycle of Skarbilovinema was
studied in a natural infected area, where flies were collected and dissected every 10-14 days during spring, summer and autumn.
DNA extraction, PCR, cloning and sequencing. Nematode DNA was extracted from several individuals using proteinase K following protocols for DNA extraction and PCR as described by Tanha Maafi et al. (2003). The forward D2A (5 '-ACA AGT ACC GTG AGG GAA AG TTG- 3') or forward D2Tyl (5'- GAG AGA GTT AAA NAG BAC GTG A -3') primers and reverse D3B (5' -
Table 1. Morphometrics of Skarbilovinema laumondi u S. lyoni; all sizes are in ^m and in the form: range
(mean and standard error).
Stage Infective female of S. laumondi Infective female of S. lyoni Parasitic female of S. laumondi Parasitic female of S. lyoni Male of S. laumondi Male of S. lyoni 4th stage female juvenile of S. laumondi 4th stage female juvenile of S. lyoni
Characters
n 25 23 15 15 20 20 26 25
L 2870-3340 2090-2630 3000-15850 1380-10530 1080-1300 689-1040 1770-2510 1150-1710
(3160±97) (2350±114) (8150±1470) (6040± (1170±45) (870±78) (2040±165) (1470±140)
1205)
a 72.0-103.8 61.7-76.4 8.8-39.0 7.2-30.6 28.1-46.4 36.1-60.0 46.4-67.3 25.5-45.7
(83.7±7.3) (64.1±2.1) (25.3±6.8) (14.3±5.2) (36.2±4.1) (48.7±5.6) (55.1±4.8) (38.6±5.0)
b 2.8-4.0 3.0-3.7 - - - - 2.4-3.8 2.5-3.4
(3.5±0.3) (3.4±0.2) (3.3±0.3) (3.0±0.2)
c 17.0-23.4 16.6-20.5 - - 11.1-16.2 12.0-16.1 13.7-18.6 7.2-11.5
(20.9±1.1) (18.5±0.7) (13.5±0.6) (14.0±0.5) (15.3±0.3) (9.4±0.5)
Body width 32-41 34-41 275-450 110-470 25-42 16-21 32-43 34-42
(38±1.4) (37±1.2) (327±33.8) (230±74.4) (33±3.8) (18±1.0) (37±2.8) (38±2.1)
Tail length 135-175 113-141 62-125 30-105 73-106 58-78 99-175 130-188
(151±8.8) (127±7.0) (93±12.4) (70±16.9) (87±6.2) (65±4.1) (135±17.6) (155±12.9)
V% 91-93 91-93 96-99 95-99 - - 89-93 85-95
(92±0.2) (92±0.2) (98±0.6) (97±0.8)
Stylet 22-28 19-25 - - - - - -
(25±1.1) (22±1.3)
Oesophageal 74-90 70-85 - - - - - -
lumen (83±3.5) (80±3.2)
Anterior end 246-293 220-265 - - 168-204 126-176 178-222 143-210
to excr. pore (265±8.8) (240±10.5) (186±7.9) (151±9.6) (190±8.4) (177±12.7)
Uterus length 690-1083 550-850 - - - - - -
(886.5± (730±65.5)
78.2)
Vulva-anus 58-88 37-56 62-188 30-130 - - - -
distance (72±5.5) (48±4.8) (135±26.0) (78±22.6)
Spicules - - - - 25-34 16-21 - -
(29±1.4) (19±0.8)
Fig. 1.. Insect-hosts of nematodes of the genus Skarbilovinema. A: Helophiluspendulus; B: Eristalis tenax; C: Helophilus sp., D: Eristalis arbustorum; E: Eristalis horticola; F: Myathropa florae; G: Parasitic female adults of S. laumondi.
Fig. 2. Skarbilovinema. A: Free-living infective female; B: Anterior end of male; C-D: Copulation; E: Anterior end of infective female; F: male third- to fourth-stage juvenile; G: Posterior end of male; H: Anterior end of young parasitic female; I: Posterior end of young parasitic female; J-L: Tails of female fourth-stage juvenile of S. lyoni; M-O: Tails of female fourth-stage juvenile of S. laumondi; P-R: Males. Scale bars: A, R, Q, P - 120 ^m; B, G - 35 ^m; C - 100 ^m; D - 110 ^m; E - 40 ^m; F - 85; H, I - 25 ^m; J-O - 80 ^m.
TCG GAA GGA ACC AGC TAC TA- 3') were used for amplification and sequencing of the D2-D3 expansion fragments of the 28S rRNA gene (Subbotin et al, 2006); the forward G18SU (5' -CGT TGT CTC AAA GAT TAA GCC- 3') and the reverse R18Tyl1 (5'- GGT CCA AGA ATT TCA CCT CTC - 3') were used for amplification of the partial 18S rRNA gene fragment (Chizhov et al., 2006). PCR products were purified using QIAquick (Qiagen, USA) gel extraction kits and then cloned using pGEM-T Vector System II kit (Promega, Madison, WI, USA). From each sample either PCR products were directly sequenced, or one or two clones were sequenced employing a DNA sequencer at the University of California, Riverside, Genomics Center. The newly obtained sequences were submitted to the GenBank database under accession numbers as indicated in Figures 5 & 6.
Sequence and phylogenetic analysis. The newly obtained sequences of D2-D3 of 28S rRNA and partial 18S rRNA genes were aligned using ClustalX with corresponding gene sequences for selected tylenchids (Perlman et al., 2003; Powers et al., 2005; Subbotin et al., 2006; Ye et al., 2007; Bert et al.., 2008; van Megen et al., 2009; Hazir et al, 2010; Poiras et al., unpublished) and representatives of Cephalobidae used as outgroup taxa. Phylogenetic analyses of the datasets were performed with Bayesian inference (BI) using MrBayes 3.1.2 (Huelsenbeck & Ronquist, 2001) under the GTR + I + G model. BI was initiated with a random starting tree and was run with four chains for 1.0 x 106 generations. The Markov chains were sampled at intervals of 100 generations. Two runs were performed for each analysis. The log likelihood values of the sample points stabilised after approximately 103 generations. The topologies were used to generate a 50% majority rule consensus tree. Posterior probabilities (PP) were given on appropriate clades. Sequence differences between samples were calculated with PAUP* 4b10 (Swofford, 2002) as an absolute distance matrix and the percentage was adjusted for missing data.
DESCRIPTIONS
Skarbilovinema laumondi Chizhov & Zakharenkova, 1991 (Figs. 2 & 3)
Measurements. Table 1. Free-living infective female. Body straight. Cuticle finely annulated with very fine longitudinal striations. Lateral field with four incisures. Two outer incisures in posterior part of body 5-11 pm
from each other. Large nuclei of hypoderm, 8-11 pm diam., uniformly distributed 25-56 pm from each other. Head capsule not sclerotised. Lip region set off, slightly projected. Stylet protractors reduced. Oesophagus cylindrical. Oesophagus lumen almost straight, about 3 pm in width and slightly widening towards base. Oesophagus lumen walls sclerotised. Stylet formed by the extension of oesophagus lumen walls. Total length of oesophagus lumen together with stylet is 99-111 pm. Stylet without basal knobs. Dorsal oesophageal gland orifice of star-like shape, located 15-25 pm from stylet base. Subventral gland orifice opens at base of oesophagus lumen. Probably, there are three oesophageal glands. Only dorsal and one of subventral glands distinctly visible. Subventral gland extends posteriorly to base of dorsal gland. Nuclei of oesophageal glands are not visible. Oesophagus narrows at nerve ring area. Nerve ring located under sharp angle to a longitudinal axis of body. Excretory pore distinctly visible. Hemizonid small, located anteriorly 35-42 pm from the excretory pore. Intestine as narrow strip without internal cavity filled with a dark, granulated mass. Intestinal nuclei in a row with uniform intervals between them. Gonad well-developed and consists of ovary and uterus, occupying 60-70% of body length. Ovary straight with ovary apex, which may sometimes extend up to excretory pore. Uterus has an appearance of tube, whose width equals two-thirds of body width, and its length equals about one-third of body length . Uterus usually with short blind appendage up to 30 pm long located behind vulva. Uterus often filled with a very fine sperm. Vulva lips are slightly protruded. Anus and rectum not clearly visible. Tail elongated and conical, protruded, with blunt and slightly expanded tip.
Parasitic female. After penetrating into a larva of the insect host (rat-tailed maggot), the infective female moults and starts growing rapidly, turning into an adult parasitic female. The moulting female with typical short constriction at junction of ovary with uterus. The constriction divides body of female into two uneven parts: longer and wider anterior part with ovary, and short and slender posterior part. At this stage deformed lumen of oesophagus and stylet are still visible at the anterior end of female body. Oesophageal glands and nerve ring completely reduced. Excretory pore is not observed. Ovary elongates and gets reflexed 1-3 times. Tail is rounded.
Adult parasitic females with sausage-like, usually C-shaped seldom spirally twisted, body. Anterior part of body wider than other parts and is gradually tapering towards tail. Head rounded in old
females, and often trapeze-form in young females. Thickness of hypoderm varies considerably depending on age of females. In young parasitic females hypoderm 5-20 pm thick. In old females hypoderm up to 40 pm thick in the middle part of body and up to 85 pm thick at the anterior end of body. Annulation of cuticle and lateral field not evident. In old females, that are turning yellow in colour, hypoderm forms thick annulation folds along the entire length of body. In younger females the lumen of oesophagus sometimes considerably deformed, and all other structures of oesophagus reduced. Narrow strip of intestine extending along body and filled with a granulated mass containing uniformly distributed large nuclei. Ovary considerably hypertrophied. Anterior part of body of adult females contains parts of former ovary, eggs and juveniles of first and second stages. Posterior part of body and uterus area contain juveniles of third and fourth stages, males, infective females and occasionally copulating individuals. Posterior part of body including vulva usually turned on the dorsal side. Tail terminus bluntly rounded. Anus present. In younger females vulva lips protracted considerably, but in old females turning yellow vulva lips usually flat and do not project above body surface. Viviparous.
Male. Body C-shaped and twisted in a spiral in its posterior part, which is slightly expanded close to spicules. Annulation of cuticle not observed. Lateral field with two incisures, 2-3 pm wide. Head area expanded, pin-shaped, 16-24 pm in diam., with an oval internal cavity. Four head papillae located symmetrically and have an appearance of small knobs up to 2 pm in height. Stylet and structures of oesophagus including oesophageal glands reduced. Intestine visually detectable as a narrow strip, which begins at base of internal cavity of head and ends at anus. Nerve ring located at a sharp angle to the longitudinal axis of body. Walls of excretory pore sclerotised. Hemizonid dot-like, located 20-28 pm in front of excretory pore. Testis usually straight, may reach the base of head capsule and occupies up to 90% of body length. Spicules L-shaped with a tubular and straight tips and a short bend at the end and triangular internal protuberances. Spicule base expanded, gubernaculum absent. Tail strongly twisted in the ventral direction and has a stretched out tip 16-24 pm long. Tail terminus blunt. Bursa with a narrow band, 5-7 pm wide, which starts slightly anteriorly to spicules outlet and reaches base of the tip of tail, but without overlapping.
Fourth-stage female juvenile. Body straight. Cuticle with thin longitudinal striation. Posterior one-third of body usually finely annulated. Head
capsule expanded, pin-shaped, 16-24 pm in diam., with an oval internal cavity and four head papillae. During the period of moulting it acquires a cylinder shape. Stylet and structures of oesophagus not developed. They start forming during the period of moulting into a free-living infective female. Oesophageal glands well-developed, but their borders are undetectable. Nerve ring clear. Hemizonid located 28-37 pm from excretory pore, closer to the anterior end of body. Distance from undeveloped vulva to anus is 46-59 pm. Gonad about 50% of length of the body. Border between ovary and uterus fuzzy, differentiated by the end of moulting. Tail conical, elongated in shape, with a blunted tip.
Fourth-stage male juvenile (n=15): L = 9001070 (990) pm; a = 22.0-31.2 (26.0); c = 11.0-16.0 (13.0); body width = 29-46 (38) pm; tail length = 63-86 (76) pm; anterior end to excretory pore = 129-187 (156) pm. Body slightly curved ventrally, expanded considerably in the area of rudiment spicules. Developed spicules frequently observed. Head capsule cylindrical. Stylet absent. Structures of oesophagus and oesophageal glands reduced. Genital tube may extend to excretory pore. Tail terminus blunt.
Third-stage female juvenile (n=15): L = 13301970 (1570) pm; a = 39.1-54.2 (44.6); c = 12.9-17.7 (15.3); body width = 30-39 (35) pm; tail length = 84-126 (102) pm; anterior end to nerve ring = 135157 (145) pm. Head capsule pin shaped, 18-25 pm in diam., with internal cavity and four head papillae. Stylet and structures of oesophagus undeveloped. Oesophageal glands clearly observed and extend downwards to one-third of the body. Gonad occupies approximately similar portion of body length.
Eggs (n=25): Located within internal cavity of the parasitic female body. Oval or almost round, 4068 (55) x 30-52 (40) pm.
Insect hosts: Helophilus pendulus, H. trivittatus and Helophilus sp. (Syrphidae).
Skarbilovinema lyoni Zakharenkova & Chizhov, 1991 (Figs. 2 & 3)
Measurements. Table 1. Free-living infective female. Body straight. Cuticle finely annulated with a very gentle longitudinal striation. Lateral field 5-8 pm wide. Four incisures arranged at equal intervals in the central part of body. Nuclei of hypoderm large, 7-10 pm in diam., uniformly distributed at a distance of 27-51 pm. Head capsule not sclerotised. Lip region slightly set off and projected. Stylet protractor reduced.
Oesophagus cylindrical. Lumen of oesophagus almost straight, about 3 pm wide, slightly extended posteriorly at the base. Walls of the oesophagus lumen sclerotised. Stylet without basal knobs. Walls of stylet thickened, formed by an extension of walls of esophagus lumen. Total length of oesophagus lumen together with stylet is 90-110 pm. Dorsal oesophageal gland orifice located 15-25 pm away from stylet base. Three oesophageal glands visible. Subventral glands extend backwards beyond base of dorsal gland. Nuclei of the oesophageal glands not evident. Lumen of oesophageal glands very wide, occupies up to 25% of the body width, become gets narrower at the area of nerve ring. Nerve ring located at a sharp angle to the longitudinal axis of the body. Excretory pore distinctly visible. Intestine begins in front of nerve ring at the base of oesophagus. It has an appearance of a narrow stripe without internal cavity, filled with a granulated mass and contains a single row of nuclei spaced at uniform intervals. Genital tube well-developed and differentiated into ovary and uterus occupying 6070% of the body length. Ovary straight and may reach the excretory pore. Uterus has an appearance of a hollow tube, whose width equals two-thirds of the body, and its length equals to about one-third of the length of body. Short blind appendage up to 30 pm on uterus, located behind vulva. Front part of it filled with very fine sperm. Vulva lips slightly protruded. Anus and rectum poorly visible. Tail elongated, conical, and protruded, with a blunt and slightly expanded tip.
Parasitic female. Adult parasitic females immobile. Their body sausage-shaped, usually C-shaped, seldom spirally twisted, widest at the anterior part, gradually narrowing towards the tail. Head rounded in old females, and often with a trapeze-shape projection in young females. Thickness of hypoderm varies from 5 to 70 pm depending on the age of females and body part. Nuclei of hypoderm uniformly distributed. In old, yellowing females hypoderm forms thick annular folds along the entire length of the body. All oesophagus structures usually reduced. Considerably reduced oesophageal lumen may remain in young females. Excretory pore and nerve ring not evident. Intestine looks like a narrow strip along the body. Ovaries considerably hypertrophied, reflexed several times. Anterior part of body of adult females contains eggs and juveniles of first- and second-stages, and posterior part contains third- and fourth-stage juveniles, males and, occasionally, copulating individuals. Posterior part of the body, including vulva usually turned on the dorsal side. Anus obvious. In young females lips of vulva
protracted and flat in old females. Tail terminus rounded. Viviparous.
Male. Body C-shaped with posterior part twisted in a spiral and slightly expanded in spicule area. Head area pin-shaped, 16-22 pm in diam., with oval internal cavity. Four head papillae arranged symmetrically and have a shape of small knobs up to 2 pm in height. Stylet and structures of the oesophagus reduced. Narrow strip of the middle intestine extends from the base of internal cavity of head to anus. Nerve ring located at a sharp angle to the longitudinal axis of the body. Hemizonid dotlike, located 20-24 pm in front of the excretory pore. Testis usually straight, occupies up to 90% of the length of body. Spicules L-shaped, with an expanded base, hollow straight tips, which end with a short bend, and the internal triangular protuberance on the body of every spicules. Gubernaculum absent. Tail strongly twisted in the ventral direction, with a stretched out tip 16-22 pm long. Tail terminus blunt. Bursa has a shape of a narrow band 5-7 pm wide, which begins slightly anteriorly to spicules and extends to the base of the tip without its enveloping.
Fourth-stage female juvenile. Body straight, with posterior part curved ventrally. Cuticle has a fine longitudinal striation. Posterior one-third of body finely annulated. Head capsule cylindrical. Lip area set off and slightly protuberant. Edges of lumen of oesophagus sclerotised. Lumen 2.0-2.5 pm wide. The orifice of dorsal gland opens 5-7 pm from the base of the lumen of oesophagus. Length of the oesophageal lumen including the stylet is 45-65 (65) pm. Total length of the oesophagus lumen including oesophageal glands is 440-600 pm. Subventral glands extend downwards beyond dorsal gland. Hemizonid located 20-30 pm from excretory pore towards the anterior end of body. Genital tube occupies about 50% of the body length, differentiated into ovaries and uterus. Uterus hollow and seldom filled with fine sperm (copulation may occur in fourth-stage juveniles). Rudiment of the vulva located 36-58 pm from the anus. Tail considerably elongated, with a thin and curved tip.
Fourth-stage male juvenile (n=15): L = 620750 (700) pm; a = 25.9-33.5 (29.4) pm; c = 9.3-12.6 (10.8); body width = 22-26 (24) pm; tail length = 56-79 (65) pm; anterior end to excretory pore = 110-120 pm.
Body slightly curved ventrally, expands considerably in the spicules part. Head capsule cylindrical. Stylet absent. Oesophagus and oesophageal glands degenerated. Testis, filled with spermagonia, reaches excretory pore with its apex. Tail terminus blunt.
Fig. 3. Skarbilovinema. A: Free-living infective female of S. laumondi; B: Female fourth-stage juvenile of S. laumondi; C: Free-living infective female of S. lyoni; D: Female fourth-stage juvenile of S. lyoni; E: Parasitic female of S. laumondi; F: Anterior end of infective female; G: Part of female fourth-stage juvenile body at vulva level; H: Anterior end of male; I: Posterior end of male; J: Spicules: K, L: Parasitic female at vulva level; M: Infective female at vulva level; N: Lateral field of infective female in the middle of body; O: Lateral field of infective female in tail; P: Ovaries of Helophilus infected by nematodes.
Fig. 4. Life-cycle of Skarbilovinema. A: Inside host; B: Outside host, in water. C: Posterior end with vulva region of adult parasitic female; D: Anterior end of adult parasitic female.
Third-stage female juvenile (n=18): L = 11301740 (1240) pm; a = 25.3-33.8 (31.1); body width = 33-56 (41) pm; anterior end to nerve ring = 120-130 pm; anterior end to excretory pore = 134-174 (154) pm.
Body straight. Head capsule pin-shaped, 18-24 pm in diam., with the internal cavity and four head papillae about 2 pm in height. Stylet and oesophagus non-developed. Oesophageal glands clearly observed, occupy up to one third of the body length. Gonads occupy about 30% of the body
length. Tail elongated and conical, with protruded tip.
Eggs (n=25): Located within the internal cavity of the parasitic female body, 40-65 (50) x 30-50 (40) pm in size.
Insect hosts: Eristalis tenax; E. arbustorum, E. horticola and Myathropa flora (Syrphidae).
Differential diagnosis. Two Scarbilovinema species differ by the following characters: (i) female fourth-stage juvenile of S. lyoni has stylet and sclerotised oesophagus, whereas these structures are
absent in S. laumondi at the same stage; (ii) female third- and fourth-stage juveniles of S. lyoni have a long thin and curved tail terminus, whereas in S. laumondi at the same stages the tail terminus is elongate-conical with expanded blunted terminus; (iii) parasitic female and male adults, infective female, and female fourth-stage juvenile of of S. lyoni have smaller body size that those of S. laumondi.
Biology. The biological peculiarities of these two species are similar. Both are obligate parasites of flies, belonging to the genera Helophilus, Eristalis and Myathropa (family Syrphidae), the larvae of which develop in the bottom sediments of lentic waters. The life cycle of nematodes is shown in Figure 4. In the Central region of the European part of Russia both species produce only one heterosexual generation with fertilisation inside a host insect. Infection of a new host occurs by free-living infective female, which develops inside abdomen of flies, and escapes out into the external environment via the genital ducts of the host together with fly eggs. Usually it occurs in the locations where flies regularly lay eggs. The infective female is very mobile in humid environment; it actively searches for a host larvae and penetrates it. After penetration. the juvenile moults, begins to grow rapidly and then turns into a parasitic female. By the time of the flight of the host imago, parasitic females acquire the maximum size and, usually, concentrate near the ovaries or at their base. Parasitic females are viviparous. Juveniles of the initial stages develop inside parasitic females. Then, female third- and fourth-stage juveniles and male fourth-stage juveniles of the next generation of the parasite enter the host's body cavity. After moulting to the infective stage, they copulate. Inseminated infective females stay in the abdominal cavity of the host for a long period, sometimes for a month or more. Then, during the egg laying, they move out into the surrounding environment. In Central and Western regions of the European part of Russia the first individuals of infective females in the fly abdomen are observed in early August to the first half of September. In Southern regions they are detected in mid-summer. The possibility of development of two generations per year can not be excluded for these regions. It is possible that they are able to overwinter at the bottom of water bodies near eggs of the host, and infect the young larvae of flies in spring of the succeeding year.
The intensity of invasion varies considerably from 1 to 30 infective females of the parasite per a host individual. Under intense invasion conditions that exceeded eight nematodes per fly, a suppression
of growth of a portion of parasitic females, which penetrated into the host later than others, was observed. Only a certain portion of parasitic females developed to the maximum size. Growth of some of them slowed down so markedly, that only several juveniles could develop. The percentage of infected flies varied usually from 2 to 10%, but in certain areas was as high as 100%. The infestation rate of flies belonging to the genus Helophilus was considerably higher than of representatives of the genus Eristalis. Male flies seldom became infected, but sometimes the rate of their infection may exceed 50%. The possible infection of females during copulation was not observed. Nematodes of the species S. laumondi were never found in flies of the genus Eristalis and nematodes of the species S. lyoni were never found in flies of the genus Helophilus. Egg production of the infested flies decreased approximately by a factor of 2-3, but complete female sterility was never observed. Eggs developing in ovaries of infected flies did not differ in morphology from those developing in healthy specimens. Nematodes did not cause any visually detectable anomalies in morphology and behaviour of infected flies.
Distribution. These nematodes were found in the territory of the European part of Russia in Moscow, Vladimir, Voronezh, Nizhniy Novgorod, Vologda, Tver and Yaroslavl regions, and in the foothill zone of North and Western Caucasus. Apparently the distribution area of these nematodes matches with the area of distribution of the host insect and both species occur together in one and the same biocenosis.
Molecular characterisation of Scarbilovinema and its phylogenetic
RELATIONSHIPS TO OTHER HEXATYLINA
Partial 18S rRNA gene. The partial 18S rRNA gene was amplified for S. lyoni. Comparison of this sequence with those of other nematodes revealed several long insertions in S. lyoni 18S rRNA. The sequence length used for the analysis was 1807 bp and it did not include the first six (1-6) and last two (49 and 50) helices of the 18S RNA structure. Taking in consideration that non-sequenced regions with nearly 250 bp, the total length of 18S rRNA gene of S. lyoni could be estimated as 2050 bp, that made it the longest known 18S rRNA for the phylum Nematode. The A-T nucleotide content for S. lyoni was 60%.
The 18S rRNA alignment contained 46 taxa including two outgroups and was 1972 bp in length. The BI tree is given in Figure 5. The suborders Hoplolaimina and Criconematina showed a sister
relationship, whereas relationships between other tylenchid suborders were not well resolved. Majority of entomoparasitic nematodes were distributed within two main clades of Hexatylina and one unidentified entomoparasitic nematode clustered with Anguinoidea. The suborder Hexatylina was divided into two major clades: (i) Deladenus spp., Howardula spp., Bradynema listronotum, Skarbilovinema lyoni and cf. Gymnotylenchus sp.; (ii) cf. Hexatylus sp., Deladenus sp., Sphaerularia spp., cf. Helionema sp. The relationships of Skarbilovinema lyoni with Fergusoria sp. and Howardula spp. were not resolved.
D2-D3 expansion segments of 28S rRNA gene.
The D2-D3 regions of 28S rRNA gene sequences for S. lyoni and S. laumondi were 817 and 939-941 bp, respectively. They can be considered the longest known fragments for this region for the phylum Nematoda according to our knowledge. Two obtained sequences of S. laumondi differed by 3 bp or 0.3%. Differences between S. laumondi and S. lyoni equalled 189 bp or 23%. The A-T nucleotide content for S. lyoni and S. laumondi was about 64%.
The partial 28S rRNA alignment contained 44 ingroup and two outgroup taxa and was 1029 bp in length. The BI is presented in Fig. 6. The relationships between tylenchid suborders were not well resolved. Entomoparasitic nematodes were distributed within two main clades of the suborder Hexatylina and one unidentified entomoparasitic nematode clustered with Anguinoidea. The suborder Hexatylina was divided into two major clades, one of them with several highly supported subclades. Skarbilovinema spp. formed highly supported subclade with Fergusobia sp., Howardula aoronymphium and Wachitylenchus bovieni. Skarbilovinema spp. had sister relationships with Fergusobia sp.
DISCUSSION
Probably, the first report on Skarbilovinema nematodes was made in the mid-seventies of the last century. Nematodes from the order Tylenchida parasitising flies of the genus Helophilus (Syrphidae: Diptera) were described by Laumond and Lyon (1975). The authors gave a description of all stages of these nematodes localised in the fly abdomen. However, they believed that they belonged to the known genus Iotonchium Cobb, 1920. After discovery and morphological study of two morphologically similar nematode species from hoverflies of the genera Helophilus and Eristalis collected in several regions of the European part of
Russia, Chizhov and Zakharenkova (Chizhov & Zakharenkova, 1991; Zakharenkova & Chizhov, 1991) concluded that they did not belong to any known genera and established a new genus Skarbilovinema. These authors also described all stages of development of the parasites and their life cycle and found that it included the only heterosexual generation. Peculiar morphological features, such as the structure of spicules and body shape of a free-living infective female, and unique life cycle including the only heterosexual generation with copulation in the fly hemocoel made these nematodes different from others and gave a reason to establish a new subfamily Skarbilovinematinae (Chizhov & Zakharenkova, 1991) within the family Iotonchiidae. However, Siddiqi (2000) did not recognise this subfamily, but also considered the genus Skarbilovinema as belonging to the family Iotonchiidae.
Using the D2-D3 of 28S rRNA gene sequences, Subbotin et al. (2006) were the first to analyse the position of Skarbilovinema lyoni within the order Tylenchida and showed that this species has a sister relationship with Wachekitylenchus bovieni. Only a few sequences from entomoparasitic nematodes were included in that analysis and other studies (Ye et al., 2007; Davies et al., 2010), and, unfortunately, the relationships within Hexatylina and between Skarbilovinema and entomoparasitic nematodes lineages remained uncertain.
Our present analyses give a more complicated picture of entomoparasitic nematode evolution and paraphyly and polyphyly for the superfamilies Sphaerularioidea and Iotonchioidea, genera Howardula and Deladenus. It also shows the presence of a nematode having entomoparasitic stage within Anguinoidea and the close relationship of Sphaerularia with a nematode inhabiting soil. The genus Skarbilovinema with morphological features typical for the superfamily Iotochioidea is attributed to the superfamily Sphaerularioidea, which indicates the importance of using morphological characters and life cycle types for the Hexatylina systematics.
Our phylogenetic analysis of the D2-D3 of 28S rRNA gene sequences revealed that Skarbilovinema species form a highly supported clade with Fergisobia. The genus Fergusobia represents a large radiation of nematode species that are currently classified in a monogeneric subfamily (Fergusobiinae) within the suborder Hexatylina, based upon morphology and life history (Siddiqi, 2000; Giblin-Davis et al., 2004). The sister relationship of Skarbilovinema and Fergisobia conflicts with current systematics and phylogenies of
-L'
— Helicotylenchus vulgaris (AY2846Q7) Heterodera glycines (AY043247) Macrotrophurus arbusticola (AY284595)
-Pratylenchus vulnus (EU669956)
100 - Criconemoides xenoplax (A'Y284625)
-Paratylenchus straeleni (AY284631)
- Sphaeronema alni (GU253916) Nagelus obscurus (EU306350)
--Eutylenchus excretorius (EU915487)
— Cephalenchus hexalineatus (AY284594) Aglenchus agricola (FJ969113) Coslenchus costatus (AY284581)
100 r Deladenus siricidicola (FJ004889) Deladenus proximus (J F 304744)
Howardula phylotretae (JX291137, 658) -Bradynema listronotum (DQ915805)
jo | L
81 100
— Howardula sp. (AF519232)
— Howardula sp. (AF519231)
— Fergusobla sp. (AY589296) 100 r Subangulna radicicola (AF202164)
iooJ1_ utyienchus coprosma (GU727546) L Ditylenchus dipsaci (EU 66 9931)
-Ditylenchus gallaeformans (JQ429767)
1001— Ditylenchus drepanocercus (Q429768)
941-Ditylenchus angustus (AJ966483)
unidentified entomoparasitic nematode (JX291139, CA39) -Ficotylus congestae (EU018049)
-Halenchus fucicola (EU669912)
Ditylenchus adasi (EU669909) -Pseudhalenchus minutus (AY593916)
-Ditylenchus destructor (AY593912)
Psilenchus sp. (EU130840)
cf. Hexatylus sp. (AY912050) Deladenus sp. (EU306345) Nothotylenchus acris (AY593914) Sphaerularia vespae (AB300595) Sphaerularia bombi (AB250213) -cf. Helionema sp. (EU669913)
- Acrobeloides apiculatus (AY2 84673)
- Zeldia sp. (AY284675)
0.1
I
□
Howardula neocosmis (AF519226) Howardula sp. (AF519223) L Howardula aoronymphium (AF519229) Howardula sp. (AF519233)
-Skarbltovinema /yon/(JX291138, 660)
-cf. Gymnotylenchus sp. (AY912040)
o o o o o o o
o •
o o o o
□
Io
o
o o
□ I
■ - Hexatylina; O - Sphaerularioidea;
□ - Tylenchina, Anguinoidea -Tylenchina, Tylenchoidea
□ - Hoplolaimina
■ - Criconematina
lotonchioidea; ©- unknown
Fig. 5. Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus tree as inferred from the analysis of the partial 18S rRNA gene sequence alignment under the GTR + G + I model. Posterior probabilities more than 60% are given for appropriate clades. New sequences obtained in this study are marked by bold font.
Helicotylerichus vulgaris (DQ328761) Heterodera glycines (DQ328692) Macrotrophurus arbusticola (DQ328708)
-Pratylenchus vulnus (EU130887)
- Criconemoides xenoplax (AY780963)
- Paratylenchus bukowinensis (AY780943)
Sphaeronema alni (AY780978)
Nagelus leptus (DQ328715)
Psilenchus sp. (DQ328716)
t
Aglenchus agricola (AY780979) Coslenchus costatus (DQ328719)
-Eutylenchus excretorius (AY780980)
-Cephalenchus hexalineatus (EU915491)
L*
imT/l
Subanguina radicicola (DQ328721) Litylenchus coprosma (GU 727 54 7) Ditylenchus dlpsaci (JF327763) Mesoaguina moxae (J N885540) Mesoanguina millefolii (DQ328722) — Subanguina chilensis (DQ328724)
unidentified eritomoparasitic nematode (DQ328725) — Ficotylus congestae (EU018047) unidentified tylenchid (JX291134, CD365) Ditylenchus destructor (EU400643)
bj- Bradynema rigidum (DQ328730)
'— Bradynema listronotum (DQ915804) — Allantonema mirable (JX291132, CD350) unidentified tylenchid (JX291133, CD289)
-c
Parasitylenchus dispar (DQ328729)
■c
Skarbilovinema iyoni (DQ328733) Fergusobia sp. (EF011673)
-Howardula aoronymphium (AY589395)
- Wachitylenchus bovieni (DQ328732)
unidentified entomoparasiiic nematode (AY920302)* Howardula sp. (JX291131, CD3S3) — unidentified entomoparasitic nematode (FJ661075) Contortyienchus diplogaster (DQ328731)
-unidentified tylenchid (JX291129, CD39)
- unidentified tylenchid (JX291130, CD207)
Sphaeruiaria vespae (AB300596) Sphaerularia bombi (DQ328726) unidentified tylenchid (367)
Zeldia punctata (EU195988) L Acrobeloides camberensis (AF147069)
0.1
Howardula phyiotretae (DQ328728) Deladenus siricidicola (AY633444)
Skarbilovinema laimundi (JX291135, CD352)
- Hexatylina; O - Sphaerularioidea;# - lotonchioidea; ©-
- Tyienchina, Anguinoidea
- Tyienchina, Tylenchoidea
- Hoplolaimina
- Criconematina
o o o
<2> •
O O
O
O •
©
O 0) o (2) (3) O
O ©
unknown
Fig. 6. Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus tree as inferred from the analysis of the D2-D3 of 28S rRNA gene sequence alignment under the GTR + G + I model. Posterior probabilities more than 60% are given for appropriate clades. * - submitted as a sequence of insect Spathius generosus (Hymenoptera) byYang et al. (2005). New sequences obtained in this study are marked by bold font.
entomoparasitic nematodes based on morphological features. Subbotin et al. (1993. 1994, 1996) showed that females of different entomoparasitic tylenchids parasitising insect hemocoel have different types of modifications of body walls. Parasitic females of Skarbilovinema and Fergusoria from the adult flies share similar structures. Nematodes of both genera have an enlarged epidermis covered by modified microvilli forming a dense 'spongy' layer (Subbotin et al., 1993; Giblin-Davis et al., 2001). This is only one prominent common character shared by these genera.
Our present study enabled the position of Fergusobia within Tylenchida to be clarified, and confirmed the hypothesis that Fergusobia evolved from entomoparasitic nematodes similar to modern Howardula (Ye et al., 2007), and rejected the hypothesis that Fergusobia, anguinids and neotylenchids have common ancestors (GiblinDavis et al., 2004). Thus, Fergusobia may present a remarkable example of tylenchid evolution to plant parasitism via entomoparasitism, whereas it has been shown that all other known plant-parasitic tylenchids originated from mycophageous nematode ancestors.
The present analysis also revealed an anomalous mode of the ribosomal RNA evolution in Skarbilovinema. The ribosomal RNA genes of these nematodes have long insertions, A-T nucleotide content bias and high mutation rate. The D2-D3 expansion segments of the 28S rRNA gene sequences of S. laumondi and S. lyoni differed by 23%, which considerably exceeded any known variation for nematode species belonging to the same genus. Several long insertions also make 18S rRNA gene and the D2-D3 of 28S rRNA gene to be the longest ribosomal rRNA genes among the phylum Nematoda, according to our knowledge. The unusual rRNA evolution might potentially lead to an anomalous position of Skarbilovinema on phylogenetic trees. Additional taxa as well as other gene fragments should be included in subsequent analyses to create a more reliable phylogeny for entomoparasitic tylenchids as well as to test their origin.
REFERENCES
Bert, W., Leliaert, F., Vierstraete, A.R. & Borgonie, G. 2008. Molecular phylogeny of the Tylenchina and evolution of the female gonoduct (Nematoda: Rhabditida). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 48: 728-744. Chizhov, V.N., Chumakova, O.A., Subbotin, S.A. & Baldwin, J. G. 2006. Morphological and molecular characterization of foliar nematodes of the genus Aphelenchoides: A. fragariae and A. ritzemabosi
(Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae) from the Main Botanical Garden of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow. Russian Journal of Nematology 14: 179-184.
Chizhov, V.N. & Zakharenkova, N.N. 1991. [Skarbilovinema laumondi gen. n., sp. n. (Skarbilovinematinae subfam. n., Iotonchiidae, Tylenchida) - a parasite of flies from family Syrphidae. Zoologichesky Zhurnal 70: 28-36.
Davies, K.A., Ye, W., Giblin-Davis, R.M., Taylor, G.R., Scheffer, S. & Thomas, W.K. 2010. The nematode genus Fergusobia (Nematoda: Neotylenchidae): molecular phylogeny, descriptions of clades and associated galls, host plants and Fergusonina fly larvae. Zootaxa 2633: 1-66.
Giblin-Davis, R.M., Davies, K.A., Williams, D.S. & Center, T.D. 2001. Cuticular changes in fergusobiid nematodes associated with parasitism of fergusoninid flies. Comparative Parasitology 68: 242-248.
Giblin-Davis, R.M., Schneffer, S.J., Davies, K.A., TAYLOR, G.S., CUROLE, J., CENTER, T.D., GOOLSBY, J. & Thomas, W.K. 2004. Coevolution between Fergusobia and Fergusonina mutualists. Nematology Monographs and Perspectives, vol 2, 407-417.
Hazir, C., Giblin-Davis, R.M., Keskin, N., Ye, W., Hazir, S., Scheuhl, E. & Thomas, W.K. 2010. Diversity and distribution of nematodes associated with wild bees in Turkey. Nematology 12: 65-80.
Huelsenbeck, J.P. & Ronquist, F. (2001). MrBAYES: Bayesian inference of phylogenetic trees. Bioinformatics 17, 754-755.
Laumond, C. & Lyon, J.P. 1975. Un nematode nouveau (Allantonematidae) parasite du genre Heliophilus (Diptera, Syrphidae). Acta Tropica 32: 334-339.
Perlman, S.J., Spicer, G.S., Shoemaker, D. & Jaenike, J. 2003. Associations between mycophagous Drosophila and their Howardula nematode parasites: a worldwide phylogenetic shuffle. Molecular Ecology 12: 237-249.
POWERS, T.O., MULLIN, P.G., HARRIS, T.S., SUTTON, L.A. & Higgins, R.S. 2005. Incorporating molecular identification of Meloidogyne spp. into a large-scale regional nematode survey. Journal of Nematology 37: 226-235.
Siddiqi, M.R. 2000. Tylenchida parasites of plants and insects. 2nd edition. Wallingford, UK, CABI Publishing, 833 pp.
Subbotin, S.A. & Chizhov, V.N. 1996. Ultrastructure of the body walls of parasitic females in entomoparasitic tylenchids. ii. Howardula phylotretae, Parasitylenchus dispar, Contortylenchus sp., and two allantonematid species. Russian Journal of Nematology 4: 131-137.
Subbotin, S.A., Chizhov, V.N. & Zacharenkova, N.N. 1993. Ultrastructure of the body wall of parasitic
and infective females of Skarbilovinema laumondi (Tylenchida: Iotonchiidae). Fundamental and Applied Nematology 16: 1-4.
Subbotin, S.A., Chizhov, V.N. & Zakharenkova, N.N. 1994. Ultrastructure of the body walls of parasitic females in entomoparasitic tylenchids. I. Two species of the genus Wachekitylenchus, Allantonema mirabile and Bradynema rigidum. Russian Journal of Nematology 2: 105-112.
Subbotin, S.A., Sturhan, D., Chizhov, V.N., Vovlas, N. & Baldwin, J.G. 2006. Phylogenetic analysis of Tylenchida Thorne, 1949 as inferred from D2 and D3 expansion fragments of the 28 S rRNA gene sequences. Nematology 8: 455-474.
Swofford, D.L. (2002). PAUP Phylogenetic Analysis using Parsimony (and Other Methods). Sunderland, MA, USA, Sinauer Associates.
Tanha Maafi, Z., Subbotin, S.A. & Moens, M. (2003). Molecular identification of cyst-forming nematodes (Heteroderidae) from iran and a phylogeny based on ITS-rDNA sequences. Nematology 5: 99-111.
van Megen, H., van den Elsen, S., Holterman, M., Karssen, G., Mooyman, P., Bongers, T.,
Holovachov, O., Bakker, J. & Helder, J. 2009. A phylogenetic tree of nematodes based on about 1200 full-length small subunit ribosomal DNA sequences Nematology 11: 927-950.
Yang, Z.Q., Strazanac, J.S., Marsh, P.M., van Achterberg, C. & Choi, W.-Y. 2005. First recorded parasitoid from China of Agrilus planipennis: A new species of Spathius (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Doryctinae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 98: 636-642.
Ye, W., Giblin-Davis, R.M., Davies, K.A., Purcell, M.F., Scheffer, S.J., Taylor, G.S., Center, T.D., Morris, K. & Thomas, W.K. 2007. Molecular phylogenetics and the evolution of host plant associations in the nematode genus Fergusobia (Tylenchida: Fergusobiinae). Molecular
Phylogenetics and Evolution 45: 123-141.
Zakharenkova, N.N. & Chizhov, V.N. 1991. [Two new species of entomopathogenic nematodes from genera Skarbilovinema and Wachekitylenchus (Tylenchida, Nematoda)]. Zoologichesky Zhurnal 70: 22-32.
В.Н. Чижов, Н. Н. Буторина, С.А. Субботин. Энтомопаразитические нематоды рода Skarbilovinema: S. laumondi и S. lyoni (Nematoda: Tylenchida), паразиты мух семейства Syrphidae (Diptera), и филогения подотряда Hexatylina.
Резюме. Дано морфологическое описание двух энтомопаразитических нематод, Skarbilovinema laumondi и S. lyoni, являющихся паразитами мух родов Helophilus и Eristalis семейства Syrphidae (Diptera). Описан жизненный цикл этих нематод. Филогенетический анализ с использованием D2-D3 сегмента последовательности большой субъединицы рибосомальной ДНК и частичной 18S-последовательности рибосомальной ДНК показал близкое родство этих нематод с Fergusoria sp. Анализ последовательностей выявил аномальный характер эволюции генов рибосомальной ДНК Skarbilovinema, характеризующихся наличием длинных вставок, высоким содержанием А-Т оснований и высокой скоростью мутаций. Различия в D2-D3 участке последовательности большой субъединицы рибосомальной ДНК у S. laumondi и S. lyoni составляли 23%, что превышает различия по этой последовательности, обычно наблюдаемые у видов нематод, принадлежащих к одному роду. Присутствие нескольких вставок в 18S последовательности рибосомальной ДНК, а также в D2-D3 сегменте последовательности большой субъединицы рибосомальной ДНК делает эти рибосомальные фрагменты самыми длиннымисреди нематод.
