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сты считают, что главное для России -это развитие контактов с Западом, с США. Известный российский политик Л. Гайдар однажды сказал: «Китай - тоталитарное государство, мы демократическое, и нам нечему учиться у Китая, нечего сотрудничать с тоталитарным режимом». Однако такое отношение к Китаю уже принесло много проблем. Например, русские очень мало знают о Китае.
Студент Цзилиньского педагогического университета Ван Цзыфэн провел анкетный опрос, в котором было 30 вопросов о Китае; цель анкеты - понять, что знают и думают о Китае русские [8].
Большинство русских (84,3 %) думает, что в дальнейшем Китай будет завоевывать другие страны, первая мишень - это Россия. 22,2 % русской молодежи считает, что во время Второй мировой войны Китай и Россия были врагами. Оставшаяся часть русских тоже не очень хорошо знает, только предполагает, что, может быть, они были союзниками.
Для решения этой проблемы (незнание и непонимание друг друга) необходимо активное сотрудничество между КНР и Российской Федерацией.
Конечно, российско-китайская
граница разделяет разные цивилизационные, демографические и политические системы. Однако, несмотря на все проблемы и противоречия, Россия и Китай на сегодняшний день играют самую важную, ключевую роль в обеспечении
безопасности и стабильности в Азиатско-Тихоокеанском регионе.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. Гаврилов Ю.Н. Россия в Азиатско-Тихоокеанском регионе: проблема геополитического самоопределения / Ю. Н. Гаврилов // Международные отношения и внешнеполитическая деятельность России / под общ. ред. С. А. Проскурина. - М.: РАГС, 2003.- С. 343.
2. Цит. по: Неклесса, А.И. Постсовремен-ный мир в новой системе координат / А.И. Неклесса // Глобальное сообщество: новая система координат (подходы к проблеме). -СПб.: Алетейя, 2000. - С. 23.
3. Там же, С. 31.
4. Воскресенский А.Д. Сбалансированное многомерное партнерство - оптимальная стратегия для России / А.Д. Воскресенский // Глобальное сообщество: новая система координат (подходы к проблеме). - С. 103.
5. Цит. по: Титаренко М. Л. Россия: безопасность через сотрудничество. Восточноазиатский вектор / М. Л. Титаренко. - М.: Памятники исторической мысли, 2003. - С. 126.
6. Там же, С. 128 - 129.
7. Выступление на конференции Института Дальнего Востока и Китайского Института современных международных отношений, сентябрь 2000 г. Цит. по: Тита-ренко М.Л. Россия: безопасность через сотрудничество. Восточно-азиатский вектор. - С. 261.
8. Ван Цзыфэн. Китай глазами русских / Ван Цзыфэн // Наука XXI век: ежегодный сборник научных статей преподавателей, аспирантов и студентов ИЭиУ. Выпуск 2. -Чита: ЧитГУ, 2003. - С. 141-146.
ЭФФЕКТИВНОСТЬ РЕЧИ ПРЕПОДАВАТЕЛЯ В Чжан Яньлин КНР
КЛАССАХ ИЗУЧЕНИЯ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА
Речь преподавателя - основная составляющая занятий по английскому языку. Однако эта тема не
является достаточно исследованной. Эта статья посвящена основным типам речи преподавателя таким, как речевые приемы, организационная речь, наводящая речь и т.д. В работе также анализируются различные факторы, влияющие на речь преподавателя, как связанные со студентами и преподавателем, так и обусловленные социальным контекстом. Основываясь на анализе данных факторов, эта статья дает рекомендации по увеличению эффективности и продуктивности речи преподавателя на уроках английского языка ■
ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER TALK IN THE ELT CLASSROOM
Teacher talk is of crucial significance to the ELT classroom. However, little research has been carried out on teacher talk. This paper discusses the types of teacher talk, such as teacher speech modifications, teacher talk of classroom management, teacher talk as feedback etc. It also analyzes the various factors affecting teacher talk, the factors concerned with the students and the teacher, and the factors related to the social context. Based on the above analysis this paper puts forward some practical suggestions to help the teacher talk more effectively and efficiently in the ELT classroom ■
* * *
Teacher talk (TT) is of crucial significance for all classrooms, particularly the English Language Teaching (ELT) classroom, because in the ELT classroom, language is not only the objective of the course, but also the medium to achieve the objective. Both the organization of the classroom and the process of acquisition are achieved through TT. Whether an ELT class is successful or not depends to a large degree on the effectiveness of TT.
I. Types of TT
1. Teacher speech modifications
When teachers give ELT lessons, they usually modify their speech unconsciously. This is “motivated by the hypothesis that these modifications make language more comprehensible, and therefore, potentially more valuable for acquisition.” (Nunan, 1991:91) According to Chaudron, TT in language classrooms tends to show the following modifications:
- Rates of speech appear to be slower.
- Pauses, which may be evidence of the speaker planning more, are possibly frequent and longer.
- Pronunciation tends to be exaggerated and simplified.
-Vocabulary use is more basic.
-Degree of subordination is lower.
-More declaratives and statements are used than questions.
-Teachers may self-repeat more frequently.
(Chaudron, 1988:85, quoted from Nunan, 1991:191)
A number of experimental investigations have been carried out into the effect of speech modifications on comprehension. These studies seem to indicate that linguistic simplifications do not have as significant an effect on L2 comprehension as elaborate modifications. (Nunan, 1991)
2. Teacher talk of classroom management
One of the teacher’s roles in the ELT classroom is to be an organizer. Whether s/he is a qualified organizer or not determines whether her/his teaching will be successful or not. Consequently, a part of the TT in the ELT classroom is related to classroom management, such as greeting, dividing the students into group or pairs, etc.
3. Teacher talk as feedback
A teacher talks in the ELT classroom in order to instruct, to manage the classroom, and to give feedback on the student’s performance as well. Feedback given through TT can be classified as positive or negative. Positive feedback lets students know that they have performed correctly and increases their motivation through praise. It is more effective than negative feedback in changing the student’s behavior.
4. Asking questions
Another type of TT is asking questions. This is a fundamental link of the teaching process. Whether a question is asked properly depends on lots of factors, such as when to ask a question, whom to ask the question to, what type of question to ask, etc. Unfortunately, many ineffective questions are asked in the ELT classrooms, such as factual questions, closed questions, and displaying questions etc.
5. The “wait time” after asking a question
Though the “wait time” after asking a question is silent, it is a very important part of TT. How long the teacher waits after asking a question determines to some extent how well the students respond.
6. Code-switching between the first and target language
It’s important for teachers to be aware of his own code-switching and analyzes its appropriateness. Otherwise, blind code-switching will hinder the progress the learners can make.
II. Appropriateness and Amount of
TT
The appropriateness of TT is very important, but hard to define. The following factors should be taken into account.
-The point in the lesson at which the talk occurs.
-What prompts the teacher talk:
Whether it is planned or spontaneous, and, if spontaneous, whether the ensuing digression is helpful or not.
-The value of the talk as potentially useful input for acquisition.
(Nunan, 1991:190)
An awareness of the appropriateness of TT will certainly help to produce a better teaching result.
What’s the proper amount of TT is a matter of judgment. According to my observation, teachers talk most of the time in the EFL classroom. Students do not have much chance to speak the target language. Steve Walsh found that TT occupied 70% of the class time. It can be argued that teachers generally talk too much and excessive TT should be avoided, or the students won’t have much time to practice their English.
III. Factors affecting TT
1. Factors concerned with the students:
1.1 Student’s beliefs
What the students believe inevitably affects TT. In China, students are accustomed to the enormous amount of TT in all kinds of classes. Only through dominating TT, the students believe, can they learn something of value. Otherwise, they may regard their teachers as lazy or not performing their duties. This is also the case in the ELT classroom.
1.2 Student’s linguistic competence
Students’ linguistic competence affects their responses, and their responses affect TT in a variety of ways. It can be hypothesized that students’ linguistic competence affects TT. For instance, the advanced students can talk in English smoothly, and they can give longer and more complex responses. This can affect the amount of TT.
1.3 Size of classes
TT in a class of 20 students differs
from that in a class of 100. Students may interact more in a small class, whereas teachers arrange for fewer activities for a large class. Therefore, teachers may talk less about classroom management and provide more input in a large class.
2. Factors concerned with the teacher
2.1 Teachers’ beliefs
Whatever the teacher believes affects his behavior and TT. If a teacher believes that a good teacher should be talkative and eloquent, probably he’ll become an excessive talker in the ELT classroom. If a teacher believes that a good teacher is one who never says more that what he should say, he’s likely to talk much less.
2.2 The approaches the teacher adopts
A teacher who adopts the Communicative Approach is likely to speak less than his counterpart who adopts the Grammar-Translation method. A teacher using the Teacher-Centered Approach most probably talks much more than one using the Student-Centered Approach.
2.3 The type of classes the teacher
gives
The amount of TT is determined by the nature of the class.
2.4 Teachers’ source of ELT Methodology
A teacher who can often get and take in the latest information abut the ELT methodology is likely to pay more attention to his talk in the ELT classroom, because he’s rethinking about and adjusting his teaching frequently.
2.5 Teacher’s age
Elderly teachers seem to teach in more fixed ways. They are more likely to use the traditional teaching method, to talk more and to make more code switching. Young teachers tend to teach in newer ways and involve the students more in the classroom activities. They seem to speak
less and make less code-switching.
2.6 Teacher’s personalities
A teacher’s personality affects his speech and actions. Some teachers are very talkative. They are good speakers, but not good listeners, some are hot-tempered and impatient. They can’t tolerate the “long silence” before the student responds. Obviously, a teacher’s talk can be affected by his personality.
3. Factors in relation to the social context
3. 1 Social values
People’s values in general affect the speech and act of an individual in a society. Without exclusion, a teacher’s talk will be affected by the social values, particularly those of the students’ parents and education authorities.
3.2 The education policy
Education policies have a great impact on all teaching, and ELF is no exception. A teacher’s talk can’t avoid the influence of the education policy. For example, the implementation of the competence education will probably decrease the quantity of TT and improve the quality of TT.
3.3 The exam system
The content of the exam is closely related to the teaching of that subject.
3.4 The assessment system
How to assess the teacher’s work and the students’ performance is an important aspect of ELT.
IV. Suggestions to make TT more effective and more efficient
In order to make TT more effective and more efficient, the following suggestions can be of some help.
1. Change people’s beliefs People learn a new language by using the language, not by the teacher teaching it. “Teachers cannot learn the language for their students. They can set their students on the road, helping them to develop
confidence in their own learning powers. Then they must wait on the sidelines, ready to encourage and assess, while each student struggles and perceives with autonomous activity.” (Rivers & Temperley, 1978) So students must depend on themselves, not the teachers to master the target language. The teacher acts as a gude to the target language. If teachers, students, parents and education authorities all accept the above view, they’ll have a new and sound standard of assessment about teachers’ duties. This change of values is basic for the teachers to decrease the quantity of their talk.
2. TT should become a normal part of the teacher-training program.
Teachers should be informed of the latest development relative to TT. A constant awareness of the effectiveness of TT needs to be maintained. Developing teachers’ reflective-thinking ability about TT will surely improve the quality of TT.
3. A scientific system of assessment for both the teachers and the students needs to be established.
If TT becomes a part of the assessment system, undoubtedly teachers will talk much more effectively and efficiently.
4. Decrease teacher talk time (TTT) to increase student talk time (STT) through careful preplanning.
Language is a means of communication. The students learn the target language as a communicative tool, not as a system of linguistic knowledge. So, STT is very crucial for the students to master the target language and to use it in their daily life. If the teacher talks too much a time-limited ELT classroom, the students will have little chance to speak, which is a hindering factor to improve their English. With creative and imaginative minds, teachers can find lots of ways to limit the TTT to a proper amount to increase the STT.
5. Allow students adequate “wait time” before responding.
After the teacher asks a question, the students need adequate “wait time” to think over the question before answering it. Studies show that in the classroom where teachers did manage to expand their “wait time” from three to five seconds after asking a question, there was more participation by more students. Particularly, the following effects occurred:
-There was an increase in the average length of student responses.
-Unsolicited, but appropriate, student responses increased.
-There was an increase to student-to-student comparison of data.
-Inferential statements increased.
-Students generally made a greater variety of verbal contribution to the lesson.
(Nunan, 1991:193)
6. Distribute questions and praised fairly and avoid favoring a particular group of students.
If a teacher shows favor to some students, others may feel excluded and ignored by the teacher. The “excluded” rest may become a non-violent rebel. They won’t be co-operative with either the teacher or those favored students. This is very harmful for the harmonious atmosphere of the EFL classroom. ELT teachers should pay special attention to this issue.
7. Improve questioning techniques.
A qualified teacher knows to whom to ask what questions. He is not confined to factual or closed questions. He asks more open questions (there is no one definite answer). To answer the questions, the students have to use their mind and probably work together with their peers. Through asking good questions, STT can be increased, and real communication can take place between the teacher and the students or among the students.
8. Make input more effective.
If TT consists of too much simplified input, the students will get into the habit of depending on the teacher to simplify whatever they encounter. Gradually, they will become lazy and their minds will accept nothing but simplified input. Progress is out of the question. Teachers should provide more elaborated input instead, that’s to say, “They should try to build in redundancy through the use of repetition, paraphrase and rhetorical markers.” (Nunan, 1991) This is consistent with Krashen’s “I+1” input hypothesis.
9. Record and ELT class and analyze it after class.
If teachers do this frequently, they’ll find out what makes their talk effective and what should be avoided later. Self-analysis is a very convenient way to know the strong and weak points of one’s own talk.
10. Ask colleagues for help.
Asking other teachers to observe
one’s class and to analyze the effectiveness of one’s talk is a good way to improve the effectiveness of one’s talk. The mutual-help program among teachers can improve the total effectiveness of TT in a particular university. This is worth recommending.
The analyses and suggestions put forward in this paper are of theoretical basis. Further experimental research needs to be carried out in order to determine whether they are scientifically valuable or not. Anyhow, this paper does provide some thoughts to improving the effectiveness of TT in the EFL classroom.
REFERENCES
1. Nunan, David, 1991, Language Teaching Methodology : A Textbook for Teachers. Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd.
2. Rivers, Wilga M. & Temperley, Mary S.
1978, A Practical Guide to the Teaching of English as a Second or Foreign Language, Oxford University Press.
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК КАК ГЛОБАЛЬНЫЙ: УДК 008. 009: 39
«ЗА» И «ПРОТИВ»
К.С. Двирная, аспирантка каф.
«Социальная антропология, философия и культура», ЧитГУ
Научные интересы: глобализация культуры, современные процессы американизации традиционных культур и языков, глобализация в рамках АТР
В статье рассмотрена проблема глобализации английского языка. Автор выделяет некоторые основные факторы, способствующие данному процессу, а также его положительные и отрицательные стороны. Рассуждая о проблеме формирования единого глобального языка, автор статьи акцентирует внимание на формировании так называемых стандартов или разновидностей английского языка, а также о формировании трёх уровней - локального, национального и стандартного английского. В результате, автор приходит к заключению, что в будущем английский язык сохранит за собой титул языка мирового об-
