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17канцелярии кушбеги 15 специально отобранных людей состояли на службе для осуществления мероприятий по встрече представителей Российских научных обществ, их сопровождения и осуществления необходимых для них мероприятий[4].
По вопросу встречи высокопоставленных личностей, посещающих страну, среди чиновников проводился отбор. Такое мероприятие организовывалось в канцелярии кушбеги, исходя из целей и сферы деятельности учёного-исследователя.
В переписке политического агентства отмечено, что большинство этих чиновников начинали свою деятельность в приграничном регионе эмирата Самаркандской области.
Исходя из направлений экспедиции, в письмах направленных на имя кушбеги Политическим агентством, было отмечено, что закреплённые за исследовательями А.П.Михайлова и Я.С.Эдельштейна мирзабаши Курбонбек и Хонгелди начали выполнять свои задачи в регионах Гарм[5] и Каратог[6], а закреплённые за В.И.Липским и Я.И.Беляевым Журабек мирзабаши и Мирза Насриддин хаджи жибачи начали свою деятельность в регионах Дамбурачии Китаб, в местности Каратегин[7].
В процессе нашего исследования было выяснено, что при освещении истории исследований Бухарского эмирата представителями научных обществ и общественности, дипломатическая переписка Политического агентства служит ценнейшим источником и требует дальнейшего пристального внимания учёных.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. Ханыков Н. Описание Бухарского ханства. Санкт-Петербург, тип. Императорской Академии Наук, 1843 г. - С.185.
2. ЦГА РУз.ф.И-3, оп.1, д.9, л.26.
3. ЦГА РУз. ф.И-3, оп.1, д.374, л.171;
4. Нечаев А.В.По Горной Бухары (путевые очерки).- С-Петербург.Типография М.М.Стасюлевича,1914. -С. 15.
5. ЦГА РУз.ф.И-3, оп.2, д.96, л.22.
6. ЦГА РУз.ф.И-3, оп.1, д.39, л.55.
7. ЦГА РУз.ф.И-3, оп.1, д.854, л.38.
ALI B. YAHYA AZ-ZANDAWISATI AND HIS WORKS AS SOURCE FOR HISTORY OF EARLY SUFISM
PhD in History Zafar Najmiddinov Uzbekistan, Namangan, Independent Researcher
Abstract. In this article, the author tried to analyze Risala fi-l-as 'ilah al-hikamiyah [Treatise on Gnostic Questions] - a Sufi/Usul ad-din work written by a Tranoxanian Hanafite scholar Ali b. Yahya Zandawisati (d. 1008). Risala has significance for shedding light on early history of Sufism in general, and on its early history in Central Asia particularly. Despite its short volume, the book discussed most questions related to Sufism/Islamic theology in a questions-answer format (fa-in qila ...).
Zandawisati's second work - Rawdat al- 'ulama wa-nuzhat al-fudala [Gardens of Scholars and Pleasure for Distinguished Men] is also related to Sufism. In his both works, the author uses the titles for chapters closely akin to 'Uyun al-majalis of Abu Ja'far al-Ustrushani (d.1014), another Sufi scholar from Central Asia. Zandawisati's third work Nazm al-fiqh (a Hanafi legal book in poetical form) has not been found so far.
According to RU, Zandawisati, for the most part, has issued his fatwas in Farsi. This fact shows that he was close to the ordinary people who never learned or didn 't spoke Arabic in everyday life. The following problems were also discussed in the article: to elucidate similarities between two works (Risala and RU); and to show interconnection between Zandawisati's books and other early Sufi texts from Central Asia (Abu Muti' Makhul an-Nasaf 's al-Lu 'lu 'iyyat fi-l-mawa 'iz, Kalabadhi 's at-Ta 'arruf Dabusi etc.).
Development of Islamic sciences in the late Samanid - early Qarakhanid period is understudied. Less attention has been given to scholars who were active in both Islamic law and Sufism. Az-Zandawisati (d. 382/992), a 10th century Sufi scholar from an ancient town of Bukhara, is one of a few Hanafi scholars who wrote books in both fields.. His full name is Abu-l-Husayn Ali b. Yahya b. Muhammad al-Bukhari. Neither Sam'ani, nor other biographers have explained origin of this nisba. It's supposed that Zandawisat is a name of a village near Bukhara, and it's a mixture of two Persian words.
Nor we have bibliographic information on his life. A 14th century biographer al-Qurashi, who is the earliest source on his biography, restricts himself to citing his fatwai. Qurashi's entry has later entirely been repeated by at-Tamimi and later authors2.
Our author has several problems related to his writings and personal life. The main of them is his date of life. Through quotations in his writings we can prove that he was active in the second half of the 10th century. However, no medieval Arabic source has given Zandawisati's exact date of birth. The only source is modern Khayr ad-din az-Zirikli (d. 1976) who gives 392/1002 as our author's date of birth . Though Zirikli didn't mention his own source, just that very date seems to be true.
We find more detailed information in Kafawi's (d. 1582) Kata'ib a'lam al-akhyar4. It's owing to him that we now know Z. studied under three famous Hanafi scholars of his time - Abu Hafs as-Safkardari, Muhammad b. Ibrahim ad-darir al-Maydani5 and Abdallah b. al-Fadl al-Khayzakhazi6. Khayzakhazi was a pupil of Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, and shared his Sufi principle of keeping himself aloof from rulers7.
Having analyzed Zandawisati's three books , names of several more Sufis and jurists who have been taught him could be found out. The most important was Muhammad b. al-Fadl al-Kamari (d. 991) who cited three times in Risala. In two places Zandawisati emphasized that he had sought guidance from Kamari in different theological questions. This shows that Kamari was his direct mentor.
Zandawisati's connection to Kamari proves that our author was well-known in Sufi circles of Bukhara. It's because Kamari is simultaneously a teacher of the famous Bukharan Sufi Abu Bakr al-Kalabadhi (d. 990), an author of "Kitab at-ta'arruf li-madhhab ahl at-tasawwuf". Since Zandawisati and Kalabadhi lived in the same city at the same time, and studied under the same master, it's very likely that they have known each other well.
Besides Kamari, dozens of Bukharan Sufis and jurists have been cited in Zandawisati's books. Some of them are identified as Ahmad az-Zandquqi (626), Abu-l-Fadl at-Tarma'azri (64a), Ibn 'Anbas (62a), al-hakim Abu Nasr Mansur b. Muhammad al-Hariri (55a), Abu-l-Fadl Muhammad b. Nu'aim (55a), Abu Bakr ath-Thalji as-asamm (576), Sahl al-Marwazi (109a), and al-faqih Abu Nasr al-Jawaliqi (109a). Zandawisati refers to a certain Abu Abdallah al-Muttawwi'i (109a etc), too. He should be identical with Bukharan scholar al-Haddadi as-suf as-wa'iz (d. 1016), an author of "'Uyun al-majalis wa-surur ad-daris"8.
There is another point which proves that Zandawisati was a Sufi. Rawdat al-ulama's initial title was Rawdat al-mudhakkirin [Garden of reminders] while al-Haddadi was given the title Crown of reminders [Taj al-mudhakkirin]. May I suggest that mudhakkir is a term that has been used interchangeably with Sufi in late 10th century Bukhara ?
Risala fi-l-hikma al-ilahiyya has reached our days in six manuscripts worldwide9. I have been able to use two copies, from Saudi Arabia and France, respectively. The Saudi Arabian manuscript is complete and kept at the library of King Saud University in Riyadh10. It has been copied in readable naskh in 1756 by Ya'qub b. al-Haji al-Aqsara'i11.
1 al-Jawahir al-mudiyya 2: 621-2; 4: 222
2 at-Tabaqat as-saniyya, Ayasofya 253, 290
3 al-A'lam 5: 31
4 MS Fayzullah Efendi 1381, folio 137v
5 al-Jawahir al-mudiyya 3: 16
6 MS Fayzullah Efendi 1381, folio 137v; al-Jawahir al-mudiyya 2: 322-23
7 RU MS Riyad, f. 53r
8 al-Ansab (al-Barudi's edition) 2: 183; Kashf az-zunun 2: 1187; al-Qand 281-82
9 GAS 1: 670; GAL SBand 1: 361
10 Available online at makhtota.ksu.edu.sa
11 Unfortunately, the manuscript has partly been eaten by worms, which made reading of those holes impossible to me.
The second manuscript of Risala is kept at the Bibliotheque National de France (Arabe 824), and has been preserved better. This copy has no defects, and been written in good naskh. However, it contains only half of the original text, and has been interrupted in the very middle12.
Here the attention should be paid to a plagiarism related to Risala. The Ottoman scholar Jamal ad-din al-Qunawi (d. 1274) who appearantly closely knew Central Asian Hanafite texts13, annexed Risala's text to his Ghunyat al-fatawa. Risala has been added as the last chapter on questions of wisdom (fima yus 'al 'anhu min al-hikam)14.
Despite the small volume, a wide range of topics have been discussed in Risala. Our Hanafi scholar wrote on questions of ethics and eschatology, etc. like all authors concerned with the spiritual life in Islam. We can read issues related to tafsir, hadith and theology. Total number of divine wisdoms (hikma) is 6515. The main aim of the author is to reveal divine wisdom behind any God's deed. Each hikma is explained in questions - answer form: "in the speaker says to you what is the hikma behind the sth. ... (fa-in qala laka qa'il ma-l-hikmafi ..) - then ... (fa) ".
As to hikma literature itself, by the 10th century we have already Central Asian al-Hakim at-Tirmidhi (d. 869) who went deeper in topic, and gained his name "al-hakim" (the sage) thanks to his general pursuit of hikma. Tirmidhi differs between two hikmas - the upper divine wisdom (hikma 'ulya) and the lower divine wisdom (hikma sufla). The upper wisdom is a sort of knowledge which is typical to Prophets and saints only. Al-Hakim Tirmidhi also taught that owners of divine knowledge (hukama) have their place after the prophets and most trustful men (siddiq).
Some early Sufis have used the terms hikma and ma 'rifa interchangeably. In general, Sufis put ma 'rifa above divine wisdom (hikma). For example, al-Hakim Tirmidhi held of opinion that the sage, theosofist (hakim) is in the same place as his words while the gnostic's ('arif place is above his words.
Why did the Sufis pay much attention to hikma? They believed that the one who has heard hikma but hadn't accepted it would commit a sin. On the other hand, the hypocrite (munafiq) is a man who heard hikma, but didn't act according to heard wisdom.
Central Asian Sufi Abu Bakr al-Warraq (d. 893) has a unique place among the early hakims. Like al-Hakim at-Tirmidhi, he taught that owners of divine wisdom (hukama) have place after the Prophets. Sources tell he produced an original work entitled Risala fi-l-l-hikma wa-t-tasawwuf. Unfortunately, this work, if it existed in fact, didn't reach our times.
Likewise, Zandawisati's second work Rawdat al- 'ulama is also closely related to Sufism. It is sufficient to look at the titles of chapters. For instance, the third chapter is on asceticism (fi zuhd alulama), and the chapter 15 is on the setting right his soul and heart (islah an-nafs wa-l-qalb), respectively. In contrast to Risala, Rawdat al- 'ulama is greater in size, and subsequently the Sufi and/or theological topics had been presented in more detail16. According to catalogues, copies of RU can be found in almost all manuscripts' funds in the world. This proves that Zandawisati's views were known and had been respected by all Eastern and Western Muslim scholars.
In order to further argue that RU can be considered as a Sufi book, the famous Central Asian Sufi figure Allah-yar (1633 - 1721) has quoted Zandawisati frequently in his Maslak al-muttaqin}1 On the other hand, in RU itself we see quotations from earlier zahids like Abu Nasr etc.
Though RU didn't discuss all Sufi topics like Abu Nasr as-Sarraj's al-Luma fi-t-tasawwuf, one can feel close similarities in al-Makki's Qut al-qulub. The topics of both books can roughly be divided into three categories: 1) that deal with Islamic ethics; 2) legal matters (fiqh), and 3) interaction between people (mu'amalat). Like Sufi authors, Zandawisati has emphasized poverty as a true way of living, and devoted independent chapter of RU to the blame of the riches and wealth and, favor of poverty" [fi dhamm ad-dunya wa-l-ghina wa-fadl al-faqr]. According to our author, all Muslim community are divided into five types of people - scholars (ulama), ascetics (zuhhad), reciters of Qur'an (qurra'), merchants (tujjar) and governors (wulat)18.
12 I would like to thank the Oriental Seminar of the University of Freiburg and Prof. Rebstock for helping me to get this copy
13 al-Jawahir al-mudiyya 3: 343-46; Miftah as-sa'ada 2: 258. According to al-Qurashi, al-Qunawi has argued with the famous Sufi Shams Tabrizi, too.
14 Ghunyat al-fatawa MS Feyzullah 1036, f. 193r
15 For convenience I number hikmas in Risala.
16 For my study I use a copy # 6820 from King Saud University in Riyad. Available online at makhtota. ksu.edu.sa
17 Maslak al-muttaqin
18 RU f. 165r
Tashkent Center of Oriental Manuscripts (former al-Beruni Institute of Oriental Studies) has a copy of Zandawisati's third work Nazm al-fiqh [Arrangement of Fiqh]. The manuscript might be the only available copy in the world. In the beginning he calls himself "al-hakim" (the wise man), az-zahid (the ascetic) 9. It's my opinion that like earlier al-Hakim at-Tirmidhi, Zandawisati has also bore these titles due to his modest style of life. Note should also be taken that first Carl Brockelmann considered Zandawisati a Sufi20 while Fuad Sezgin later described RU as "ethical doctrines from the Qur'an, hadith and the sayings of the Sufis" and placed it in the "Mysticism" section of his "Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums"21. In such a situation, it's hard to explain why Sufi biographical books (ar-Risala al-qushayriya, Sulami's Tabaqat as-sufiyya, Nafahat al-uns) have neglected our scholar.
In contrast to Sufi authors, it's the Hanafi legal works which mostly contain Zandwisati's opinions. Having analyzed those passages, I found out that no hikma has been quoted particularly. The citations are mostly from Nazm al-fiqh, or Rawdat al- 'ulama.
To show interaction netween fiqh and tasawwuf, there is another example from the late Samanid Bukhara. A Bukharan Hanafi scholar Abu Zayd ad-Dabusi (d. 1038) was a quite young fellow when Zandawisati passed away in the same city. They might not have met each other due to the difference in ages but Dabusi's al-Amad al-aqsa seems to have been written under the direct influence of Risala. For instance, like Zandawisati, Dabusi has also asserted view that this world is a prison for believers (ad-dunya sijn al-mu'min)22.
Apparently, we have to search roots of Zandawisati's non-recognition by contemporary Sufis in the scientific milieu that surrounded him. He was closer to jurists than to Sufis. Abu-l-Yusr al-Bazdawi wrote an anecdote about how scholars of Samarqand and Bukhara had disputes on the creation of the faith (iman). The Bukharans, who consisted of four men, were of opinion that it was uncreated (ghayr makhluq). Two of them were Zandawisatis's teachers Safkardari and Kamari23. However, in contrast to his teachers, Zandawisati had nothing against Samarqandian scholars since he quoted famous Abu-l-Qasim al-hakim (!) as-Samarqandi in Risala. On the other hand, the author hasn't discussed the creation of the faith, but instead says that the knowledge ('ilm) is uncreated.
Zandawisati's method of interpreting Quranic verses is also unique. Six hikmas in Risala are devoted to revealing divine secrets behind the Quranic verses. The interpretations are close to what's called Sufi interpretation of Qur'an (at-tafsir as-sufi).
There are also two other peculiarities of Risala. Through explaining wisdoms Zandawisati tried to express his attitude towards Shi'ism and Shafi'ism, too. It's assumed that this is because two Islamic groups were major opponent to Hanafism in late Samanid Bukhara24.
In hikma 44 the author emphasizes importance of Sunna prayers. He says that in fact all those raka'ats were originally prayed by earlier Prophets long before Muhammad SAW. Thus, the author tries to show importance of Sunna prayers for all law schools. Furthermore, the hikmas 13 nd 22 are devoted to Islamic faith. As a traditional Hanafite, he refutes Shafi'ites and holds the view that the faith is consisted of acknowledgement (iqrar) and belief (tasdiq) only.
In the the 30. hikmah it's emphasized that Ali is the fourth Caliph, and his place is under Abu Bakr. This happened due to Ali's leisure in responding the Prophet's call to Islam, while Abu Bakr accepted Islam in the first call. Zandawisati narrated that Ali has walked four steps before accepting Islam. In this hikma we can see refutation of Shia Qarmatians who were still active in the mid-10th century Bukhara.
To sum up it can be said that in Central Asia, like elsewhere in the Muslim worls, zuhhad and hukama were a sub-group of Sufis. Though we have no Zandawisati's direct link to Baghdad Sufism, it's obvious that he belonged to both sub-groups. From his works we also found out that in his time a particular movement emerged among Hanafites. Apart from traditional authors (al-Quduri), those scholars tried to seek divine wisdom behind religious duties. The Karramiya and Qaramitah might also have played significant role in these processes which is a topic of more detailed studies.
19 Sobranije vostocnyh rukopisej, v. 6, Tashkent, 1963. p. 453-54
20 GAL SBand 1: 361
21 GAS 1: 670 - "ethische Lehren aus Qur'an, Hadith und den Aussprüchen von Sufis"
22 al-Amad al-aqsa p. 142ff; Risala hikma 14
23 Usul ad-din, p. 158
24 on influence of Shafi'ism in the 10th century Bukhara see: Halm, die Ausbreitung ...
REFERENCES
1. Al-Qurashi. Al-Jawahir al-mudiyya fi tabaqat al-hanafiyya. Volumes 1-5. Egypt: Hijr -1413/1993
2. Zandawisati. Ar-Risala fi-l-hikma al-ilahiyya. MS 4128 King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia
3. As-Sam'ani. Al-Ansab. Edited by al-Barudi. Bairut: Dar al-jinan, 1408/1988.
4. Haji Khalifa. Kashf az-zunun. Volumes 1-2. Bairut: Dar ihya' at-turath al-'arabi, without date.
5. F.Sezgin. Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums. V. 1. 1967
6. Carl Brockelmann. Geschichte der arabischen Literatur. Different editions.
7. Abu-l-Yusr al-Bazdawi. Kitab usul ad-din. Edited by Hans Peter Lins. Cairo: Isa Babi al-Halabi, 1963
8. Ghunyat al-fatawa MS Feyzullah 1036
9. Sobranije vostocnyh rukopisej, v. 6, Tashkent, 1963
БРИТАНСКИЙ ИМПЕРИАЛИЗМ И ЕГИПЕТСКИЙ ФЕМИНИЗМ В КОНЦЕ ХТС НАЧАЛЕ ХХ в.
Канд. ист. наук Турк С. Н.
Россия, Краснодар, Кубанский государственный аграрный университет имени И.Т. Трубилина кафедра истории и политологии
Abstract. The urgency of article is connected with the contradictory relationship between Muslim and Christian countries and cultures in conditions of globalization.
The article is devoted to women's issues in Egypt during its colonial rule of Britain at the turn of two centuries and contains a description of the basic Imperial ideas about the "country of pyramids".
Egypt was the first Arab country, which turned the feminist movement and the struggle for women's equality.
In fact, the feminist movement merged with the modernization of the country in the field of education, culture, as well as in the development of nationalism and anti-imperialism of Britain.
Keywords: Egypt, Qasim Amin, colonialism, Cromer, England, feminism, women, veil.
"Отцом египетского феминизма" считается Касим Амин (1865-1908,)- юрист, египетский писатель, публицист (курд по происхождению). К. Амин убедительно доказывал, что главная причина упадка арабских стран кроется в угнетенном положении женщин. Он подчеркивал необходимость просвещения женщины, уничтожения многоженства.
В книге впервые проводится идея о том, что ислам не виноват в приниженном положении женщины, а виноваты обычаи и предрассудки, от которых необходимо избавиться. Такими предрассудками К. Амин считал затворничество женщин (сегрегацию) и чадру.
Радикальные призывы К. Амина уничтожить чадру и затворничество были расценены как прозападнические и вызывали нарекания и чувства протеста в египетском обществе.
По мнению арабской исследовательницы Лейлы Ахмед, важной представляется идея К. Амина о необходимости культурной и социальной трансформации всего мусульманского мира в целом, которая была лейтмотивом его книги. Он высказал смелую для того времени мысль: "Положение женщины в социальном строе соответствует культурному уровню нации" [1].
Еще при жизни автора книга была издана повторно в 1912 г. и продолжала оставаться в центре внимания. Книга, несомненно, произвела фурор и вызвала бурю в арабском мире, его идеи были восприняты в штыки традиционалистами. Касима Амина объявили зиндиком (еретиком).
Все это подтверждает мысль, что в начале ХХ в. большая часть арабской интеллигенции оставалась в определенной степени консервативной в женском вопросе. Требование уравнения женщин в правах с мужчинами шло вразрез с религиозными традициями и социальной психологией. Это трактовалось как проявление "западничества".
