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AKKADIAN LOANWORDS IN SUMERIAN REVISED1
Статья содержит пересмотренные и исправленные результаты предыдущих русскоязычных публикаций автора на данную тему. В ней рассматриваются аккадские заимствования в шумерском языке, проводится морфологическая, семантическая и грамматическая классификация 369 шумерских лексем.
Ключевые слова: шумерский язык, аккадский язык, аккадизмы в шумерском, шумерские этимологии, шумерская картина мира.
Sumerian etymology is a problematic field due to the well-known indeterminacy of the language’s genetic relationship. This leads to a lot of speculations, the authors of which compared Sumerian words with lexemes (mainly nouns) of various languages by similarity of sound (Ahlberg, Yoshiwara 1991; Autran 1925; Ball l9l3; Bengtson 1997; Braun 2001; Fournet 2011; Gostony 1975; Militarev 1995; Parpola 2010; Rubio 1999; Whittaker 1998) . Much more correct approach was demonstrated by I. M. Diakonoff who compared not only nouns and verbs, but also grammatical markers of Sumerian and Munda languages (Diakonoff 1997). To my mind, more promising would be method of the gradual reconstruction of Sumerian etymology. The first step of it is studying of loanwords: from Akkadian and Semitic terms to Human, Elamite and probable Proto-Indo-European lemmata. This article aims to present an overview of the plausible Akkadian loanwords in Sumerian.
In his Sumerian grammar the outstanding Assyriologist D. O. Edzard wrote: “The CAD volumes [...] include ca. 13.630 Akkadian lemmata. Of these, about 980 are Sumerian lonwords (ca.
1 The article contains reviewed and corrected results of my papers previously published in Russian (Emelianov 2006; 2009; 2010a; 2011; Emelianov 2013). All papers were discussed with Professor Manfred Krebernik, to whom I am grateful for the invitation to the University of Jena under academic exchange program. I also convey my heartfelt thanks to Ilya Khait (Jena-Leipzig) and Alexei Kassian (Moscow) for their critical reading of this paper.
2 For example, Chadic nVrV = lVrV: Mpn laar ‘boulder, stone’ // Akk. naru ‘stone monument, boundary stone’ (Stolbova 2005: 95). In fact, Akk. naru
< Sumer. na-dru-a ‘erected stone’. Chadic lugu ‘a man’ // Sumerian lugal ‘military leader, king’ (Stolbova 2005: 64). In reality, lugal < lu2 ‘adult man’ + gal ‘big’.
320 of which are only attested in lexical lists). This count yields a little above 7% of Sumerian loanwords in Akkadian vocabulary [...] Unfortunately, no corresponding data may so far be offered for Akkadian loanwords in Sumerian because Sumerian lexicography is still in its infancy [. ] There are only about 13 words of Akkadian origin among ca. 350 entries in PSD B; of these 13,5 occur only in lexical lists. This count yields 3, 7% of Akkadian loanwords for Sumerian words beginning with the letter B” (Edzard 2003: 178). Five years before him J. Bauer counted 32 Akkadian loanwords of Old Sumerian time, mainly relating to the spheres of economic activity, trade and military affairs (Bauer 1998: 437). Recently two remarkable works on the Akkadian loanwords in Sumerian came off print. G. Steiner issued a large inventory of Akkadisms in Sumerian, placing 90 words alphabetically and by type of phonetic transitions (Steiner 2003: 630-647). More recently, W. Sommerfeld published a study of Early Semitisms in Sumerian from Protoliterate signs of Uruk to archaic texts from Ur, Ebla and Fara. He averaged 14 Semitisms of the late-Uruk period (3200-3000 B.C.) and 36 words of probable Semitic origin in the texts of later ages (XXVII-XXIV centuries) (Sommerfeld 2006: 30-75). Also of interest is a recently published article by M.Civil “Early Semitic loanwords in Sumerian” (Civil 2007: 11-34), based mainly on the lexical texts of II-I millennium BC.
All these works represent a big step forward in the study of this problem, but they also have some remarkable drawbacks. Sommerfeld mixes Semitisms with Akkadisms without separating one of them from another. Steiner gives a continuous list of words without specifying age and sources. It’s not quite productive in methodological aspect, since the types of inflection and phonetic transitions changed from time to time. The same applies to Civil’s paper. Therefore, additional work on the chronological arrangement of Akkadian loanwords is necessary. One should also pay attention to what kind of theme prevails in Akkadisms of certain time, which is important for the reconstruction of the Sumerian picture of the world through the lexical database.
The most recent Russian academic essay on Sumerian contains section 2.6.0. “The source, amount, and the role of lexical borrowing” (Vizirova, Kaneva, Koslova 2010: 88-92). It seems necessary to review its conclusions. The authors notice that Akkadian verbs borrowed in the Sumerian language for the most part in the form of Stative 3 Sg masc. Some Semitic verb stems reinterpreted in the Sumerian language as containing nominal and
verbal part and look like Sumerian compound verbs. Akkadian nouns could be borrowed in three forms: 1) base without flexion; 2) base with a morpheme - a; 3) base with the ending -um. Borrowing the first two types are characteristic for pre-Sargonic time, while Akkadian loanwords ending -um are typical for Sargonic and Neo-Sumerian periods. This section contains 64 lemmata, including:
Fara - 7
Abu-Salabikh and Ebla - 3 Old Sumerian - 22 Sargonic and Neo-Sumerian - 27 Old Babylonian - 5
It is noted that in the pre-Sargonic period names of tools, products, legal and business vocabulary, the names of social and religious institutions were often borrowed. In Old Akkadian and Neo-Sumerian texts semantic groups of loanwords include designations of posts, cultic terms and names of holidays, names of plants and animals, weapons, everyday life objects (furniture, utensils, household items) (Vizirova, Kaneva, Koslova 2010: 88 - 90).
However, this section is not even a preliminary description of the subject. One should note the obvious haste in the conclusions of the authors. Akkadian verbs can be borrowed in the Sumerian not only in the form of stative, but in the infinitive form (buluh < palahu, su huz < suhuzu) (Vizirova, Kaneva, Koslova 2010: 91), as well as in a more complex form of the truncation of the first vowel and converting of ending -u to -a (as in the case ha-za < ahazu). Akkadian nouns included in the Sumerian language, not only in the three forms, but also with the ending -u, without mimation (guziu < kussa / i'um, hutpu < hutpum), and with the ending -i (eristi < eristum).
As the authors rightly note, “the current state of the Sumerian lexicography does not allow us a full statistical calculations of Akkadian loanwords in Sumerian” (Vizirova, Kaneva, Koslova 2010: 88). However, the striving for such calculations is still necessary. The basis of our work is the data of the online Sumerian dictionaries (CDLA, ePSD, ETCSL) and a few text groups (primarily royal inscriptions and economic texts (Behrens, Steible 1983; Gelb, Kienast 1990). One should mention that the present work is dedicated to the same language pair as S. Lieberman’s study on the Sumerian loanwords in Akkadian, but regards the opposite direction of borrowing (Lieberman 1977).
I. Pre-Ur III
Akkadian/Semitic Loanwords
-0
1. abal ‘dry asphalt’ < abalu ‘to dry’ (G) aCaC OS
2. alad ‘a spirit, genius’ < w/maldu ‘born’ < waladu ‘to bear’ (R)
aCaC Gudea
3. burud ‘breach, hole, depth’ < b^tu (G) CuCuC OAkk
4. damgar, damgargal ‘merchant, senior merchant’, < tamkaru < makaru ‘to sell for silver; to plan’ (Steiner 2003: 634) (J)
CaCCaC OS
5. garas = karasum ‘leek’ (G) CaCaC OS
6. gim (ginx) ‘like, just as’ (equative case) < kma (Steiner 2003: 633)
Case CiC OS
7. gi(-n) < kёn ‘(to be) permanent, true’ (Steiner 2003: 633; Sommerfeld 2006: 61) Adj CiC OS
8. libir ‘old’ < labir < labaru ‘to be old’ (Steiner 2003: 633) Adj CiCiC OS
9. lulim ‘stag’ < lulmu (Steiner 2003: 634) (F) CuCiC OAkk
10. MAS+GAN2, mas-gan2 < maskanu ‘settlement’ (Steiner 2003: 633; Sommerfeld 2006: 52) (M) CaCCaC OS
11. me-limx ‘frightening splendor’ < me ‘magic force’ + la’mu ‘ashes’
(or Semitic lm ‘ ‘to shine’) > melammu (Emelianov 2010b: 1109—
1119) (R) CeCiC OS
12. mundu (mun-du) < mundu ‘groats’ (Powell 1986: 12-16)
(G) CuCCu OS
13. (m)uzug < masahu, masaku, masaku ‘a ritually unclean, impure person’ (Emelianov 2013) (R) CuCuC Gudea
14. nemur ‘leopard’ < nimru (F) CeCuC Gudea
15. rib ‘to be surpassing, outstanding’ < rabй ‘to be big, great’ (V) CiC OS
16. sam/sa12-rig7 ‘to donate’ < sarik < saraku (Steiner 2003: 631)3 (V) CaCCiC OS
17. sam2 < simu ‘purchase price’ < samu ‘to buy’ (Steiner 2003: 634; Sommerfeld 2006: 57) (E) CaC OS
18. seg9-bar, senbar, sa-bar < s/sapparu ‘a deer or mountain goat’ (Kogan 2006: 278; Civil 2007: 21) (F) CeCCaC OAkk
3 ePSD: LEX/Old Babylonian/Sippar [[<(sa|)> rig7]] = [...] =
[PA].KAB#.DU# = se-ri#-[ik]-tum!# ‘a gift’ OB Diri Sippar Seg.7, 8; [[<(sam)> rig7]] = sa-ra#-[kum] ‘to donate’ OB Diri Sippar Seg.7, 9. LEX/Old Babylonian/unknown [[<(sam)> rig7]] = sa-ra-kum OB Diri “Oxford” 280. unknown/Old Babylonian/unknown sag rig7-ga = re-es si-ri-ik-tim ‘the main gift’ (MSLSSI: 17-27 i 49).
19. silim ‘to be healthy; completeness; well-being’ < salim, salimu < s/salamu (Steiner 2003: 634) (R) CiCiC OS
20. suhus (var. s/surus) ‘foundation, base, root’ < sursu (Civil 2007: 31) (T) Gudea
21. sum < sumu ‘garlic’ (Steiner 2003: 634; Sommerfeld 2006: 64)
(G) CuC OS
22. su-lim ‘awesome radiance’ (cf. me-limx) < su ‘body’ + la’mu ‘ashes’ (or Semitic lm‘ ‘to shine’) > salummatu (R) CuCiC Gudea
23. uz ‘goose’ < usu (Militarev, Kogan 2005: 32; Sommerfeld 2006: 66)
(F) uC OS
24. sumur ‘angry’ < samru (ePSD) Adj CuCuC Gudea
25. surme(n) ‘cypress’ < surmmu (ePSD) (G) CuCCeC OS
26. uz3 ‘goat’ < enzu (Steiner 2003: 642; Sommerfeld 2006: 66)
(F) uC OS
-a
27. ab-ba ‘father’ < abu (Steiner 2003: 632) (K) aCCa OS
28. amra ‘beam, timber’ < amru (G) aCCa OS
29. arzana ‘groats’ < arsanu (Steiner 2003: 632) (E) aCCaCa OAkk
30. damhara ‘battle’ < tamharu < maharu ‘to take, to accept’ (Steiner 2003: 634) (P) CaCCaCa OS
31. dim2-ma < temu ‘thought, planning, instruction’ (Steiner 2003: 634) (Ab) CiCCa OAkk
32. gi(-na) < ken ‘true’ (Steiner 2003: 633; Sommerfeld 2006: 61) Adj CiC OS
33. malga ‘(fore)thought, plan(ning); understanding; instruction, advice’
< malga < milku < malaku ‘to give advice’ (Steiner 2003: 633) (P) CaCCa OS
34. habuda (urudha-bu(236)-da) ‘hoe, ax’ < hap/butum (T) CaCuCa OAkk
35. ibila ‘heir’ < aplu < apalu ‘respond to someone, follow someone’ (Steiner 2003: 632) (K) iCiCa OS
36. ishu = ishu ‘Zuweisung’ (AHw: 387); ‘allocation ?’ (ePSD) (E) iCCu Gudea
37. isgana (is-gana2) ‘an extra payment’ = iskinu ‘a supplementary payment’ (ePSD) (E) OAkk
38. lahama ‘a mythical sea monster’ < lahmu (Militarev, Kogan 2005: 197-199) (F) CaCaCa Gudea
39. lidga < litiktu ‘measuring vessel, a unit of capacity’ (Powell 198790: 495, 497) (E) CiCCa OS
40. mada ‘country, state’ < matu (Steiner 2003: 633) (P) CaCa OS
41. mana ‘a unit of weight’ < manu ‘to count’ (Steiner 2003: 633; Sommerfeld 2006: 63) (E) CaCa
42. na-gada < naqidum ‘herdsman’ (Steiner 2003: 634) (J) CaCaCa OS
43. nam-ugula ‘position of foreman’, cm. ugula (P)
44. ni3-gi-na ‘permanence, truth’ < ni3 ‘thing’ + gina (< ken) ‘permanent’ (R) CiCiCa Gudea
45. ragaba ‘rider’ < rakibum < rakabu ‘to ride’ (Steiner 2003: 634) (M) CaCaCa OAkk
46. sagina, sakkanak ‘governor’ < sakkanakku < sa3 ‘heart’ + gina (< ken) ‘true’ (P) CaCiCa OS
47. sabra ‘administrator of a temple or other household’ < sapirum < saparu ‘to send, to give instructions’ (Steiner 2003: 634) (P) CaCCa OS
48. u3 < u ‘and’ (C) u OS
49. ugula < ‘foreman, overseer’ < waklum < wakalu ‘to trust smth. to smbd.’ (Steiner 2003: 634; Sommerfeld 2006: 65) (P) uCuCa OS
50. ugula-e2 ‘foreman of a temple’, cf. ugula (P)
51. umma ‘old woman’ < ummu ‘mother’ (Steiner 2003: 634) (K) uCCa OS
52. za-as2-da (zi-iz-da, zi-is-da) ‘crime, reimbursement’ < sartu, sastu < sararu ‘to tell lies, to be dishonest man’ (Wilcke 1991: 13-14; Steiner 2003: 643) (L) CaCCa OS
-i
53. dari ‘eternity’ < daritum < dawaru ‘to be continued’ (Steiner 2003: 633) (R) CaCi OS
54. sagi, sagia ‘cup-bearer’ < saqu (saqi’u) < saqu ‘to water’ (Steiner 2003: 634) (J) CaCi OS
-u/um
55. budum < budum ‘metal vessel’ (Sommerfeld 2006: 48)
(T) CuCuC OS
56. ginatum ‘guarantee’ < kawanu ‘to be constant, permanent, true’ (Steiner 2003: 633; Sommerfeld 2006: 48) (E) CiCaCuC OS
57. leum ‘writing board’ < le’um < Semitic lwh (Steiner 2003: 633) (T) CeuC Gudea
58. mar6-ra-tum ‘weapon’ < marratum, marrum (P) CaCCaCuC Gudea
59. mayaltum (ma-al-tum) ‘bed, sledge’ < mayyaltum (ePSD) (T) CaCCaCCuC OAkk
60. mitum ‘a divine weapon’ < mittum (Steiner 2003: 634) (P) CiCCuC OAkk
61. murnisku ‘young equid’ < murnisqu < mur ‘young male donkey’ + nisqu ‘the best’ (F) CuCCiCCu Gudea
62. musalum / masalum ‘mirror’ < musalum < masalu ‘to be like smbd. or smth.’ (T) CuCaCuC OAkk
63. nakabtum ‘stockyard’ < nagabtum (E) CaCaCCuC OAkk
64. nasparum ‘kind of garment’ < nasparum (E) CaCCaCuC OAkk
65. nisku ‘the best’ < nisqu < nasaqu ‘to choose’ (Steiner 2003: 634)
(Adj) CiCCu OAkk
66. rabum ‘grandee’ < rabйm (P) CaCuC OAkk
67. satu = sadu ‘mountain’ (ePSD) (G) CaCu Gudea
68. situm (si3-i-tum) ‘balance’ < siatum < Mtu ‘to remain’ (E) CiCuC OAkk
69. sergum < serkum ‘a string of fruit’ (ePSD) (E) CeCCuC OAkk
70. zahum ‘a metal basin’ < sahum (E) CaCuC OAkk
71. zatum ‘type of flour’ < zatum (E) CaCuC OS
72. zi-ri-lum/num, zi-ri-gum < ziriqum ‘an irrigation device, may be shadouf’ (Sommerfeld 2006: 49) (T) CiCiCuC OS
Substratum/Adstratum
73. a-ru12-da (urudu) < wemm ‘copper’ (Sommerfeld 2006: 60)
(G) aCuCa OS
74. bursuma ‘widow, old woman’ < pursumu ‘old man, old woman’ (ePSD) (M) CuCCuCa OS
75. gise-ra-num2 (G) ‘a tree’ (?) (G) eCaCuC Gudea
76. gada < kMm ‘cotton’ (Sommerfeld 2006: 56) (G) CaCa OS
77. harran = harrnnu ‘route, path’ (ePSD; Kassian 2010/2011: 411) (G) CaCCaC OS
78. hazi, hazin ‘an axe’ < hassinnu < hasasu ‘to hack’ (Steiner 2003: 633) (T) CaCi Gudea
79. giszabalum = sapalum, supalum ‘conifer tree’ (MAD 3: 240) (G) CaCaCuC ‘juniper’ (?) (G) CaCaCuC Gudea
Dubia
80. alam/n ‘statue; form’ < salmu (Steiner 2003: 643; Sommerfeld 2006:
60) (R) aCaC OS
81. amar ‘son, calf’ < maru ‘son’ (K) aCaC OS
82. anzu(d) (?)4 ‘bird of destiny’ < anzй < Semitic ‘nz/zz (Militarev,
Kogan 2005: 71-72) (F) aCCuC OS
83. biluda (pi-lu5-da) ‘ritual order’ < bёlйtu ‘power’ < ba‘alu ‘to rule’ >
pelludn (Steiner 2003: 633) (R) CiCuCa OS
4 Or may be dIm-dugud (Alster 1991: 1-5).
5 ePSD: LEX/Old Babylonian/Nippur biluda(PA.AN) OB Nippur Lu 172; [[biluda]] = = PA .AN = pe2-el-lu-<du>-u2-um OB Diri Nippur 360;
84. di < dinum ‘judgement’ (cf. di-ku5 = dinum danu ‘to judge’) (Steiner 2003: 643; Sommerfeld 2006: 61) (L) Ci OS
85. gi < qarn ‘reed’ (Steiner 2003: 643; Sommerfeld 2006: 62) (G) Ci OS
86. halam ‘(to be) bad, evil; to forsake, forget; to destroy’ < halaqu ‘to disappear, to die’ (Steiner 2003: 643)6 (V) CaCaC OS
87. IR 11 (urdud, arad, ere3) < wardum ‘slave’ (probably, from waradu ‘to remove, to lower’; (Krecher 1987: 7-19; Steiner 2003: 634; Sommerfeld 2006: 62) (P) iC OS
88. kes(-d/ra) ‘to bind, to tie’ < kayaru ‘to bind, to tie’7 (V) CeCCa
89. parses < pasisu ‘a priest’ < pasasu ‘to anoint’ (Steiner 2003: 634;
Krispijn 2004: 105-112; Sommerfeld 2006: 57) (R) CaCeC OS
— 8
90. suhur ‘to trim or comb the hair’ < sartu < sa‘rtu (s‘r) ‘hair’ (Civil 2007: 30) (M) CuCuC OS
91. sita (nam-sita) < tistalum ‘a weapon’ (Wilcke 2005: 430-445) (T) CiCa OS
92. usum (usumgal) ‘dragon’ < basmu ‘type of snake’ (Steiner 2003: 643; Sommerfeld 2006: 58) (F) uCuC OS
Anlaut
Labial: w > u, w > 0 (aruda, arad), b > 0 (usum)
Dental: d > t, t > d Gutturals: k > g, q > g Sibilants: s > s, s > z, s > z Nasals: m > g
[[biluda]] = = = up-sa-su-u2 ‘magic’ OB Diri Nippur 361. LEX/Old Babylonian/Sippar [[biluda]] = bi-lu-da = PA.AN = pi2-il-lu-du-u2 up-sa-su OB Diri Sippar Seg.7, 18. LEX/Old Babylonian/unknown [[biluda/marza]] = = = [up]-sa-su-u2 OB Diri “Oxford” 290; [[biluda]] = = [PA.X] = pa#-ar#-sum sa pi2-lu-<di> ‘ritual (about rite)’ OB Diri “Oxford”
291.
6 Or may be borrowing from the West Semitic hlm with the same meaning (Civil 2007: 19).
ePSD: lu2.zu2.kes2-da = be-el ki-is-ri ‘lord of connection’ (lu2-azlag B = C, 8, 7). It is difficult to explain this phonetic transition. Either we have initially Sumerian verb with /dr/-ending, or there is a trace of very old borrowing from kiyru. Then we can propose kisru > kezra > kes(d)ra.
8 Borrowing from South Semitic is also quite possible (Civil 2007: 30). According to ePSD: LEX/ED IIIb/Ebla [[suhur]] = SUHUR = su-hu-rui2-um Ebla Sign List 31. LEX/Old Babylonian/Nippur [[suhur]] = su2-hu#-ur# = SUHUR = qi3 -im-ma-tum ‘tuft of hair’ OB Aa 809:1. LEX/Old Babylonian/unknown lu2 suhur = sa qi4-ma-tim OB Lu-Azlag A 388; lu2 suhur la2 = ke-ez-rum ‘hairstyle’ OB Lu-Azlag A 389; lu2 suhur = sa qi4-im-ma-tim
Inlaut
Vowels: a > i, i > e, e > i
Dental: t > d, t > t
Gutturals: k > g, q > k
Sibilants: s > z, s > z
Laryngeals: ‘ > h
Sonants: r > h
Several words in G. Steiner’s list are difficult to accept. For example, it is a common place to derive Sumerian sa-gaz ‘murderer, thief’ from Akkadian saggasu ‘killer’ (Steiner 2003: 634). But it is necessary to pay attention to:
a) a separate occurrence of the verb gaz in Old Sumerian royal inscriptions from Lagash with meaning ‘to slaughter’;
b) excellent Sumerian etymology of this compound word (sa ‘sinew’, gaz ‘to cut, to slaughter’, i.e, ‘the cutter of sinews’);
c) the occurrence in the Sumerian language combinations kind of e2-gu4-gaz ‘house of slaughtering oxen’, sag-gaz ‘cutter of heads’9.
The big surprise is Steiner’s etymology aratta ‘praise, glory’ from Akkadian tanattu with the same meaning (Steiner 2003: 643). It is known Akkadian word arattu ‘excellent, excellent quality’, which became then ‘nice’. The Akkadian word formed from the Sumerian word Aratta - i.e., from the place or country named Aratta whose goods were known in Sumerian time for their excellent quality. Also Aratta was a synonym of something important and glorious (as well
as Dilmun)10.
9 In the Sumerian language, verbs of type CaC with final -z are extremely rare. Besides gaz, there is only maz (< Drehem mazbium) ‘to rejoice, enjoy’. It could be a root derived from a Semitic verbal noun. Quite probably, gaz has a similar origin. The ePSD gives such Akkadian equivalents as: hasasu ‘to cut off, break off’ (also Arabic, Ethiopian) (AHw: 330), kasasu/gasasu ‘to cut off, bite off, grind’ (the Semitic qss ‘abschneiden’) (AHw: 457; Lane VII: 2526). Sign Gaz can also be read as GAY/ KAY (Labat 1952: 192). See also writing of GAZ as KAZ8 and correspondence ka-azKAZ = ka-sa-su (CT 12, 20a II: 8) (Aa). Transition s > z in Auslaut is well-known (at least, parsu > garza), and variants k/g stand for q in cuneiform writing. Thus, there are strong reasons to believe that the Sumerian verb gaz in two variants of its writing - gaz, kaz8 - can be derived from the Semitic verb qss, also with two variants of writing - kasasu/gasasu.
10 dil-mu-unNI+TUKUki = kab-tu 'heavy, important’ (Ea II 39; Diri VI C 121; Igituh I 258); a-rat-taLAMxKUR.RU'kl = kab-tum (Diri IV 88; Proto-Diri 547a).
Another strange etymology derives Sumerian su bal ‘to change, modify, turn over’ from Akkadian supelu with the same sense (Steiner 2003: 634). Sumerian compound verb may be perfectly decomposed into noun su ‘hand’ and verb bal ‘turn’, and the root form supelu has no Semitic equivalents in the dictionaries of Akkadian (AHw: 1279; CAD S 3: 320-323). So, most likely, we can probably talk about reverse borrowing - from Sumerian to Akkadian.
Akkadian loanwords borrowed before Ur III give us unique data for understanding the origin of many features and categories of Sumerian culture. The Sumerians were taken from the eastern Semites:
a) all business vocabulary (as sales agent, scales, a measure of weight, price, deficit) ;
b) all major religious categories (ritual, proper order of things , the truth , eternity, terrible radiance, the greeting of prosperity);
c) the concept of guilt, sin ;
d) the military terminology and some weapons ;
d ) terms for the nobles and the temple administrators;
e) the term refer to the slave.
This list highlights all abstract categories of religion and law, and the vocabulary of trade is abstract as well. In the Sumerian language, there was no such word as ‘eternity’: to say ‘forever’, one had to use a complicated construction ud ul-li2-a-se3 ‘on the early days’, in the sense ‘on the days that had already passed’, which was related to an idea of cyclical time. The Semitic /dari/ is much shorter and more parsimonious for the language. The same goes for silim (... dun) ‘to be prosperous, to wish someone well-being’ (silim he2-me-en ‘be healthy!’), which is shorter and more convenient than the Sumerian inim-duio ... dun ‘to tell someone a good word’. To talk about the ritual and the true world order in the Sumerian language is possible only through a use of the noun me. Meanwhile, me originally meant only the vitality and the attributes of an animate subject, and it did not mean ‘a rite, a ritual’ in archaic texts. This meaning of the noun me was adopted as late as after its comparison with both an Akkadian word parsu and its derivative marza dated back to the Second dynasty of Lagash. Consequently, it is necessary to note an influence of this Semitism to an expansion of the semantic field of the Sumerian word. The adjective zid ‘right, true’ originates from a certain direction (su-zid ‘right hand’); however, this adjective can represent neither the truth of an abstract judgment nor the world
order. Only the Akkadism /gina/ can bind the two categories -‘permanence’ and ‘truth’ - into a single category ni3-gi-na. No less important for the formation of the abstract categories of the Sumerian culture was an introduction of the term for a legally punishable offense of a person. We know only two words for this concept. The first one is lul ‘the lies, treachery, a criminal’; the second one is zasda ‘falsehood, dishonesty, crime’. Both words indicate the right connection between the telling of lies, dishonesty and crime. There is also a word ni3-gig ‘a black thing’, meaning ‘a taboo and taboo-breaking’. Still, this term was associated only with witchcraft and spoilage rather than with a category of law; however, unlike all the foregoing, zasda had an additional meaning of ‘a punishment for the crime’.
An adoption of Semitic derivatives from the root rbj ‘to be great, to be a ruler’ by the Sumerian language was quite a remarkable fact: up to then, the dominant position had been represented in Sumerian only by one of the two definitions of the noun: -gal ‘great’ or -mah ‘high’. Since the Akkadian time, it became possible to omit both definitions and to call a nobleman with one convenient word. The borrowing of the word matu, meaning not only ‘a country’ (for which there was a Sumerian word kalam ‘our territory’) but also ‘the state’, is worth mentioning. It is likely that the borrowing of quite a number of trade-related terms may indicate an underdeveloped state of trade and exchange before Sumerians had contacted with the Eastern Semites. An active use of an Akkadism damhara might be explained through an assumption that the native Sumerian me3 ‘battle’, when sputtered, had been heard as me ‘magic force’, so that the meaning was eventually confused. As to the term for a slave, its synonym in the Sumerian language has not been found, so this is hard to say what it meant. Nevertheless, one may assume that the practice of capturing slaves during the wars in the mountains and then selling them used to be a profitable business among the Eastern Semites, so it is only later that such a practice had been adopted by Sumerians. On the other hand, the native Sumerian term for a slave might simply have been substituted with a more accurate Akkadian word.
Generally speaking, it may be concluded that the main reasons for Sumerians to borrow words from the Akkadian language were as follows: a) to achieve parsimony of speech, b) to get a greater degree of abstracting from objects to ideas and ratios, c) to give proper names to social and legal institutes that had been poorly developed, such as state, council or legal punishments for social offences.
II. Ur III
By the end of the 3rd millennium BC, southern Mesopotamia had gradually shifted to Semitic languages, the Akkadian and the Amorite ones. The Akkadian language of the Neo-Sumerian period has been recently described in a separate monograph (Hilgert 2002), unlike the Sumerian language of the Ur III time, which has still been waiting for further research. By the 21st century BC, the Sumerian language had ceased to be spoken but saved its status at schools, temples and offices. The larger part of the corpus of the Ur III Sumerian texts consists of bureaucratic documents, including those having quite a lot of common names that feature the Akkadian structure and mimation. Evidence of these documents has been collected by I. J. Gelb in “The Dictionary of the Old Akkadian Language” (MAD 3). This dictionary is an extremely valuable source, and, strangely enough, it has not been used much by the older investigators of relations between the Akkadian and Sumerian languages (Steiner 2003; Sommerfeld 2006). Gelb tended to apply the term “Old Akkadian” to an entire time period of the initial spreading of the Akkadian language in Mesopotamia - from casual Akkadian loanwords of the Old Sumerian time to the Akkadian texts of the Ur III (MAD 3: IX). He used to mark every Sumerian word that has remained in the texts of the Ur III time and been featured with mimation as “Akk. lw. in Ur III Sum.” (MAD 3: 15f). It is quite possible that some of those words had been borrowed as early as during the Sargonic period but later proved to appear within the corpus of the texts of the Third Dynasty of Ur. Therefore, they may be dated based on the time when they were written down; besides, the fact that the Akkadian loanwords survived in the Sargonic texts tend to appear in their altered forms counts in favor of an assumption that they had been borrowed during the period of the Third Dynasty of Ur.
I could agree with I. J. Gelb, who wrote in his grammar of the Old Akkadian language: “A very large number of Akkadian words used in the Sumerian language of the Ur III Period indicate a growing influence of the Akkadian” (MAD 2: 17). Yet, there is an opposite view. In M. Hilgert’s monograph on the Akkadian language of the Ur III period, several pages are devoted to the problem of Akkadian loanwords in the Sumerian language. The author’s position about an Akkadian influence during this historical period is most skeptical. First, a large number of craft-related terms and words for trees are of a Semitic rather than of a purely Akkadian origin, and the
fact that they are mentioned in administrative texts may be explained by a necessity to have used them as technical terms for naming imported goods. Therefore, it was quite natural for craftsmen and traders who were native speakers of Semitic languages (mainly the West Semitic ones) to have been bringing some local words, basically associated with a typical list of goods they used to sell, into the languages of southern Mesopotamia. Second, according to W. Sallaberger, a fast growth of the number of holidays that had Semitic names was associated with a name Shulgisimtum. A wife of Shulgi, the king of Ur, came from a northern region of Mesopotamia, where those holidays were celebrated, and adopted the rituals of her native land at the south of the country. It is characteristic that after her death a number of Akkadisms in the names of Sumerian holidays drastically reduced, so that many holidays had been completely forgotten. Thus, according to M. Hilgert, unlikely are there any objective reasons to consider that Akkadian words had been appearing in the Sumerian everyday speech on a regular basis. It means that Gelb’s list is not a reliable enough evidence to attest the words featured with mimation as precisely Akkadian loanwords that used to change the synchronous Sumerian vocabulary of the time (Hilgert 2002: 80-85; Sallaberger 1993 I: 202).
Hilgert’s skepticism deserves attention; yet, one could hardly agree with all his arguments. At the end of the 3rd millennium B. C., southern Mesopotamia was literally overflowed with Amorite tribes, and each tribe contributed its own dialect to both Sumerian and Akkadian vocabularies, which were dissolved in everyday speech and later appeared in literary texts. Evidence of this is hymns to Shulgi featured with an extensive use of Semitic words. Due to a continuous growth of the Amorite influence in the south of Sumer, from which the kings of Ur were unable to get protected even after they had built the Great Wall, Semitic words might first adopt both the Akkadian mimation and forms and then enter into the speech of Sumerian native speakers. It is also worth noting that Sumerians themselves might either invent words of an Akkadian paradigm that are absent in Akkadian texts or readopt their own words bearing Akkadian endings back from the Akkadian language. Words of this sort undertook their long journey from language to language and, therefore, became clear to all peoples of ancient Mesopotamia without translation. At that point, there is a good reason to consider certain Akkadian loanwords of the Ur III period as some vital elements of interethnic communication.
Akkadian/Semitic Loanwords -0
93. baras = naprusu ‘to fly’ (ePSD) (V) CaCCuCu
94. durah = turahu ‘wild mountain goat’ (ePSD; AHw: 1372) (F)
CuCaC
95. garan ‘bunch of fruit’ < karmu ‘heap, mound’ (CDA, 149; ePSD) (G)
96. halulaya < hallulaja ‘an insect’ (MAD 3: 128; AHw: 312 ‘Maulwurfsgirlle’) (F) CaCuCaCa
97. katab = katammu, katappu ‘lid, cover’ (ePSD) (E) CaCaC
-a
98. masdara (gismas-dara3) ‘cuneiform inscription on the pedestal of statue’ = mastaru ‘inscription’ (ePSD; AHw: 631) (Ab) CaCCaCa
99. simda (urudsimda) ‘brand, branding mark’ = simtu ‘destiny, predestination’ (T) CiCCa
100. sadurra, seturum = seturrum ‘garment’ (MAD 3: 290; AHw: 1221) (E) CaCuCCa, CeCuCuC
101. simda, sinitum, sinitum = sinitum ‘kind of veil ‘ (MAD 3: 278; AHw: 1242) (E) CiCiCa
-u/um
102. abrum (ab2-ru-um) ‘Holzstoss’ (AHw: 7; MAD 3: 15), ‘storage facility’ (ePSD) (E) aCCuC
103. abum ‘a festival; mound for funerary use’ = apu (ePSD; AHw: 62 ‘Rohricht’) (R) aCuC
104. agium (a-gi4-um) = agijum ‘garment’ (MAD 3: 20) (E) aCiuC
105. allanum (al-la-num2) = allanu ‘oak’ (MAD 3: 39; AHw: 37) (G) aCCaCuC
106. allikum (al-li2-ku-um) ‘plant or tree ‘ (MAD 3: 39; AHw: 37) (G) aCCiCuC
107. alum (al-lum) = alum ‘hoe’ (MAD 3: 41; ‘sum. Lw.’ - AHw: 37) (T) aCuC
108. alu = alum ‘ram’ (‘a type of sheep’ - MAD 3: 37; ‘Himmelsstier’ -AHw: 39) (F) aCu
109. aralum ‘?’ (MAD 3: 65)
110. arganum = arganum ‘conifer’ (MAD 3: 63); ‘Mekka-Melisse?’ (DAB: 359; AHw: 67) (G) aCCaCuC
111. arhum ‘type of brick’ (MAD 3: 63); ‘Halbziegel’ (AHw: 67) (T) aCCuC
112. annum (a-ri2-num2) ‘product of stone’ (MAD 3: 65) (E) aCiCuC
113. armatum (ar-ma-tum) = armatu ‘a door part’ (MAD 3: 65); ‘Bergziege’, ‘B.-Figurchen aus Kupfer’ (AHw: 69) (E) aCCaCuC
114. asbatum = asb/patum ? (MAD 3: 74); ‘ein Gegenstand’ (AHw: 80) (E) aCCaCuC
115. aslum ‘a plant’ (MAD 3: 75); ‘Binse, Seil’ (AHw: 81) (G) aCCuC
116. azalum (a-za-LUM) = azallum ‘a plant’ (MAD 3: 85; AHw: 92) (G) aCaCuC
117. baluhum, buluhum = baluhhum, buluhhum ‘a resinous plant’ (MAD 3: 95; ‘Galbanum-Kraut’ - AHw: 101 ‘sum. Lw. ?’) (G) CaCuCCuC
118. bantum (ba-an-tum3) ‘a bird’ (ePSD) (F) CaCCuC
119. batium, patium ‘vessel’ = batium (MAD 3: 103; AHw: 116) (E) CaCiuC
120. binitum ‘a beam for houses and boats’ = binitu ‘wooden beam’ (MAD 3: 99; AHw: 126-127) (T) CiCiCuC
121. binum = binum ‘tamarisk’ (MAD 3: 91; AHw: 127) (G) CiCuC
122. gisbuganum (KA-ga-num2) = bukannum ‘wooden rod’ (MAD 3: 95; AHw: 136) (P) CuCaCuC
123. burasum = burasum ‘pine-tree’ (MAD 3: 101; AHw: 139)
(G) CuCaCuC
124. dabatum = tappatum ? ‘a garment’ (MAD 3: 298) (E) CaCaCuC
125. dabiltum = tabiltum ‘vessel?’ (MAD 3: 294; AHw: 1298) (E) CaCiCCuC
126. dagsirum ‘(worker), firming (a building)’ = tagsirum ‘consolidation’
(MAD 3: 123; AHw: 1300, 1308 taksirum ‘Reparatur’)
(M) CaCCiCuC
127. dahabastum = tahabastum (MAD 3: 125; AHw: 1300 ‘ein
Rohrggst.’) (T)
128. dakirum ‘?’ (MAD 3: 121)
129. dakirum = takkirum ‘garment’ (MAD 3: 296; AHw: 1307 ‘ein
Gewand’) (E) CaCiCuC
130. damselum = tamsilu ‘resin’ (MAD 3: 186) (G) CaCCeCuC
131. damsilum = tamsilum ‘image, similarity ‘ (MAD 3: 186; AHw: 1316 ‘Abbild’) (Ab) CaCCiCuC
132. gusduksium = tuksu ‘leather shield’ (AHw: 1368; ePSD)
(E) CuCCiuC
133. elammagum (e-lam-ma-gum2) = elammakum, elimmakum ‘a tree’
(MAD 3: 41; AHw: 196 ‘ein wertvolles Bauholz aus Syrien’)
(G) eCaCCaCuC
134. elunum ‘a holiday’ = elulu, ululu ‘cleansing (of Ishtar’s statues in the river of sacred ordeal)’ (MAD 3: 41; AHw: 210; Cohen 1993: 229, 397-399; Emelianov 1999: 91-98) (R) eCuCuC
135. eralum = eranum, eralum ‘a tree’ (MAD 3: 65) (G) eCaCuC
136. erebum ‘?’ (ePSD) ‘refugee’11 (P) eCeCuC
137. erianum, elianum = eri’anum, eli’anum ‘a tree’ (MAD 3: 61); AHw: 386 irianum ‘ein Baum bzw. Strauch’; probably, e-ra-num2 of Gudea cylinders - A XV 33) (G) eCiaCuC
138. erubatum = erubbatum ‘tax, gift, holiday’ (MAD 3: 62; AHw: 248 ‘Einzugsfest’) (R) eCuCaCuC
139. erum ‘a plant’ (MAD 3: 59; DAB: 298 ‘a laurel’) (G) eCuC
140. eskurum = iskuru ‘wax’ (MAD 3: 75; AHw: 396) (G) eCCuCuC
141. estum (es3-tum) = istum ‘straw’ (MAD 3: 81; AHw: 259) (E) eCCuC
142. gablium, kablium ‘middling (of quality)’ = qablium ‘middle, medial’
(MAD 3: 224; AHw: 888) (Adj) CaCCiuC
143. gagartum = kakkartum ‘a type of bread’ (MAD 3: 143; AHw: 421 ‘Rundbrot’) (E) CaCaCCuC
144. gagatum ‘?’ (MAD 3: 116)
145. gallatum ‘?’ (MAD 3: 117)
146. gamamtum = kamamtum, kammantu ‘vegetable’ (MAD 3: 147; AHw: 430) (G) CaCaCCuC
147. gannum = kannum < gan ‘vessel’ (MAD 3: 147-148; AHw: 437) (E) CaCCuC
148. gillum ‘product of silver’ (MAD 3: 117] (E) CiCCuC
149. giranum = gerranum ‘wailing, wailing ceremony’ (MAD 3: 120) (R) CiCaCuC
150. gugutum ‘plant’ = ku(k)kud/tum ? (MAD 3: 116; AHw: 296 ‘ein Futterkraut’) (G) CuCuCuC
151. gukrum (guk2-ru-um) = kukurum, kukrum ‘resinous plant’ (MAD 3: 143) (G) CuCCuC
152. gullatum ‘a ball’ (MAD 3: 117) (E) CuCCaCuC
153. guzebatum = kusiptum ‘a pie?’ (MAD 3: 153; AHw: 514 ‘Brotbrocken’) (E) CuCeCaCuC
154. guziu (gu-zi-u3) = kussa/i’um > gu-za, gu-ze2 ‘a throne’ (MAD 3: 152; AHw: 515) (P) CuCiu
155. habalum (ha-ba-LUM) ‘product of wood’ (MAD 3: 124)
(E) CaCaCuC
156. habum ‘animal’ (MAD 3: 123; AHw: 306 ‘eine Art Gazelle’)
(F) CaCuC
157. hadarum = hattaru ‘?’ (MAD 3: 127; AHw: 307)
158. hasianum = hasianum ‘plant’ (MAD 3: 135; AHw: 334)
(G) CaCiaCuC
11 This word is known only from entirely broken line from glorifying poem of Shulgi (Shulgi C, sg. A 64). Unfortunately, we do not know real translation of it.
159. haum = ha’um ‘covering of chair?’ (MAD 3: 122; AHw: 338 ‘eine Throndecke’) (E) CauC
160. hazanum = hazanum ‘governor (?)’ (MAD 3: 136; AHw: 338) (P) CaCaCuC
161. hilatum = hillatum ‘sort of wool’ (MAD 3: 128) (E) CiCaCuC
162. hilzum = halsum ‘fortress’ (ePSD; AHw: 313 ‘Festung’)
(P) CiCCuC
163. hintum = hindum ‘vessel’ (MAD 3: 129) (E) CiCCuC
164. hiriatum, hiritum = hiritum ‘metal product’ (MAD 3: 13; AHw: 348 ‘ein Ornament’) (E) CiCiaCuC, CiCiCuC
165. hubum = huppum ‘bronze product’ (MAD 3: 131) (E) CuCuC
166. hurium = hurium, hurianum ‘plant’ (MAD 3: 131; AHw: 359 ‘eine Gewurzpflanze’) (G) CuCiuC
167. imduhsum, indahsum = imtuhsum, intuhsum ‘vessel’ (MAD 3: 47; AHw: 379) (E) iCCuCCuC, iCCaCCuC
168. isbatum = ispatum ‘quiver’ (MAD 3: 76) (T) iCCaCuC
169. kabbum = kabbum ‘wooden product’ (MAD 3: 141; AHw: 417 ‘gluhend gemacht’) (E) CaCCuC
170. kamkammatum (MAD 3: 147; AHw: 432 ‘Ring’) = kamkammatum < gam-gam ‘to surround’ (E) CaCCaCCaCuC
171. kamlum, gamlum = gamlum ‘weapon’ (MAD 3: 118) (T) CaCCuC
172. kikurum ‘wooden object’ (MAD 3: 143) (E) CiCuCuC
173. kililum = kililum ‘wreath, garland’ (MAD 3: 146; AHw: 476 ‘Kranz’) (E) CiCiCuC
174. kirrum = kirrum ‘type of cup’ (MAD 3: 151; AHw: 484 ‘ein grosser Krug’) (F) CiCCuC
175. kirsum ‘?’ (MAD 3: 152)
176. kizrum = kisrum ‘military detachment’ (ePSD) (P) CiCCuC
177. kubullum ‘something edible’ (ePSD) (E) CuCuCCuC
178. lubustum = lubustu ‘garment’ (ePSD) (E) CuCuCCuC
179. lulumtum = lulumtum, luluntum ‘garment’ (MAD 3: 162; AHw: 563 ‘ein Reise- u. Kampf-Gewand’) (E) CuCuCCuC
180. madalum = mad/tallum (MAD 3: 170; AHw: 571 ‘ein Ggst. aus Kupfer’)
181. mahatum ‘reed object’ (MAD 3: 171) (E) CaCaCuC
182. maltum = maltu ‘type of vessel’ (ePSD; AHw: 596 ‘ein Napf, flache Schale’) (E) CaCCuC
183. manzastum, manzattum = manzastum, manzattum ‘station’ (MAD 3: 304) (Ab) CaCCaCCuC
184. maratum = marratum ‘tree’ (MAD 3: 183; AHw: 612 ‘ein Bittere’) (G) CaCaCuC
185. masatum = massatu ‘spear’ (ePSD; AHw: 629) (T) CaCCaCuC
186. masgium (mas-gi4-um) = masqium (MAD 3: 282; AHw: 629 ‘ein Wasserstelle’)
187. mashum = mashum ‘vessel’ (MAD 3: 185; AHw: 625 ‘ein Bierbecher’) (E) CaCCuC
188. maslium, masliatum = maslijum, maslilum ‘leather bucket’ (MAD 3: 270; AHw: 628) (E) CaCCiuC, CaCCiaCuC
189. matqum = matqum ‘sweetness’ (MAD 3: 187) (E) CaCCuC
190. mazharum = mas/sharum ? ‘metal object’ (MAD 3: 238) (E) CaCCaCuC
191. meburkum = meburkum ‘plant’ (MAD 3: 169; AHw: 639 ‘Halfagras’) (G) CeCuCCuC
192. metenum = metёnum ‘wooden object’ (MAD 3: 187; AHw: 649 ‘Mahlkasten’) (E) CeCeCuC
193. miritum, zamiritum (za3-mi-ri-tum) = miritum, zamiritum (< Semitic
12
zmr ‘to emit musical sounds’) ‘musical instrument’ (MAD 3: 182) (T) CiCiCuC, CaCiCiCuC
194. mudulum = muddulu ‘preserved meat’ (MAD 3: 169; AHw: 666) (E) CuCuCuC
195. mudum (mu-du8-um) = mudйm ‘garment’ (MAD 3: 169; AHw: 666) (E) CuCuC
196. nabasuhum = nabasuhum, nawasuhum, namasuhum ‘garment’ (MAD 3: 196; AHw: 726 namassu’um) (E) CaCaCuCuC
197. nabatum, napatum = napatum ‘a part of a chariot’ (MAD 3: 203) (T) CaCaCuC
198. nabaum = naba’um ‘detail of boat’ (MAD 3: 196; AHw: 697 ‘ein Bootshaus’) (T) CaCauC
199. nabhatum = nahbatum ‘leather or reed cover’ (MAD 3: 126; AHw; 714) (E) CaCCaCuC
200. nabihum = nabihu ‘gold jewelry’ (MAD 3: 12; AHw; 697) (E) CaCiCuC
201. nabrium = nabriu ‘detail of plough; sacrifice; a holiday’ (MAD 3: 100; AHw: 699; Cohen 1993: 394-39513) (R) CaCCiuC
12 According to CDA, miritum < maritu ‘from Mari’ (CDA: 198, 208). In this case, zamiritum may be a result of folk etymology which have two main versions: 1) Sumerian za3-mi2 ‘hymn, glory’ + Akkadian miritum; 2) or, from Akkadian verb zamaru ‘to play music’.
13 M. Cohen suggests the origin of the word from the verb baru ‘getting signs to make predictions’. He also notes that the holidays called nabrium occur during the winter months of the year, which may indicate that they are connected with the prediction of the future for the coming year. One must also take into account the hypothesis of S. Langdon, who suggested that the winter holidays with verbs of radiance devoted to revival the Sun-god in the days of the winter solstice (Langdon 1935: 30). In this case, we can assume
202. nadum = nadum ‘a waterskin’ (MAD 3: 189; AHw: 704) (E) CaCuC
203. nahbastum = nahbastum ‘an instrument’ (MAD 3: 125; AHw: 714 ‘ein Rohrggst.’) (T) CaCCaCCuC
204. namarum = namaru ‘mirror’ (MAD 3: 202; AHw: 726) (T) CaCaCu
205. namarum = namaru ‘garment’ (MAD 3: 47; AHw: 726 ‘ein glanzender Stoff’) (E) CaCaCu
206. namzarum = namsarum ‘sword’ (MAD 3: 183; AHw: 729) (T) CaCCaCuC
207. nabdanum = naptanum ‘meal, repast’ (MAD 3: 220; AHw: 741 ‘Mahl(zeit)’) (E) CaCCaCuC
208. natum = natum ‘knife handle?’ (MAD 3: 194; AHw: 766 ‘(Messer-, Sichel-) Griff?’) (T) CaCuC
209. negibum = mkepum ‘metal object’ (MAD 3: 200; AHw: 776) (E) CeCiCuC
210. nemetum = mmedum ‘stand’ (MAD 3: 45; AHw: 776) (E) CeCeCuC
211. gisneribum = rnrebum ‘?’ (MAD 3: 62; AHw: 780)
212. niktum = niqdu ‘plant used as a dye’ (MAD 3: 200, 205; AHw: 792 ‘Feldkummel’) (G) CiCCuC
213. nirum, nirrum ‘mat with a jumper’ = nlrum ‘yoke’, ‘jumper’ (MAD
3: 193) (E) CiCuC, CiCCuC
214. nurum = nurum ‘?’ (MAD 3: 193)
215. nushu = nushum ‘vessel’ (MAD 3: 206; AHw: 805) (E) CuCCuC
216. nuzuhum = nussuhum ‘wooden object’ (MAD 3: 206; AHw: 806)
(E) CuCuCuC
217. pizirium = pezzerium ‘gold object’ (ePSD) (E) CiCiCiuC
218. puhrum = puhru ‘assembly’ (ePSD) (P) CuCCuC
219. rabatum ‘a garment’ (ePSD) (E) CaCaCuC
220. sabitum = sabltum, sebltum ‘musical instrument, a type of lyre
(‘Sabian’?)’ (MAD 3: 263) (T) CaCiCuC
221. samsatum (sa-am-sa-tum) ‘solar emblem’ (MAD 3: 277; AHw: 1158) (R) CaCCaCuC
222. satium (sa12-ti-um, sa12-di-um) ‘east wind; east; easterner’ < sa-tu ‘mountain’ < sadu + -i + -um ‘(going) from mountains’ (ePSD; AHw: 1125) (G) CaCiuC
223. sesehum (se11-se11-hu-um) = sisihum ‘garment’ (MAD 3: 290; AHw: 1250) (E) CiCiCuC
224. simtum = simtum ‘jewelry’ (MAD 3: 69) (E) CiCCuC
225. sursurrum = sursurrum ‘chain’ (MAD 3: 290) (E) CuCCuCCuC
226. sagultum = sakultum ‘a meal’ (MAD 3: 25) (E) CaCuCCuC
the origin of the feast from the verb nmr / nwr ‘to shine (about the heavenly bodies)’ (* nawrium).
227. salatum (sa3-la2-tum) = sallatum ‘garment’ (MAD 3: 271; AHw: 1148) (E) CaCaCuC
228. saranum = saranum ‘a tree or bush’ (MAD 3: 285; AHw: 1185) (G) CaCaCuC
229. sarrabdu (sar2-ra-ab-du/du8) ‘official; demon of the Nether World’ = sarrabtu (ePSD; AHw: 1187) (R) CaCCaCCu
230. sarumium = sarumium ‘kind of sheep’ (ePSD; AHw: 1193)
(F) CaCuCiuC
231. sasurum = sassurum ‘reed object’ (MAD 3: 290; AHw: 1198) (E) CaCuCuC
232. sazabtum = saz/sabtum ‘jewelry’ (MAD 3: 207) (E) CaCaCCuC
233. serhunum = sirhunum ‘adornment’ (MAD 3: 284; AHw: 1216) (E) CeCCuCuC
234. serrum = serum ‘mat’ (ePSD) (E) CeCCuC
235. sirum = sirum ‘garment’ (MAD 3: 262) (E) CiCuC
236. tialum = tial(r)um, lijarum ‘a tree’ (MAD 3: 292; AHw: 1353 ‘Weisszeder’) (G) CiaCuC
237. tium = t/dium ‘?’ (MAD 3: 292; AHw: 1363)
238. uduhhum, utuhum = utuhhum (MAD 3: 82; AHw: 1445 ‘eine Brotsorte’) (E)
239. ukurum = ukurru ‘sort of brick’ (ePSD; AHw: 1406 ‘ein Bauziegel’) (T) uCuCuC
240. urakum = urakum ‘instrument’ (MAD 3: 64; AHw: 1427) (T) uCaCuC
241. urkidanum = urkidanum ‘a tree’ (MAD 3: 64; AHw: 1432)
(G) uCCiCaCuC
242. urnum (ur-num2) ‘a tree’ (MAD 3: 65; AHw: 1431 ‘eine kleine Zeder’) (G) uCCuC
243. ururu = yaruru ‘wailing, lamentation’ (ePSD) (R) uCuCu
244. wadaltum, badaltum ‘a shed where animals are born?’ (MAD 3: 19; ePSD]) (E) CaCaCCuC
245. wadaum = wada’um ‘bronze object’ (MAD 3: 18; AHw: 1454) (E) CaCauC
246. zahalum (za-ha-LUM) = zahannu (MAD 3: 306; CDA: 443 ‘beam, rafter’)
247. zapihum = zapihum ‘a bird’ (ePSD) (F) CaCiCuC
248. zazagum = zazakkum ‘official’ (MAD 3: 312) (P) CaCaCuC
249. zehrum = sihrum ‘edge of seal’ (MAD 3: 237-238) (T) CeCCuC
250. zeturum (ze2-tu-ru-um) = ziturum ‘vessel’ (MAD 3: 311)
(E) CeCuCuC
251. zibatum = zibbatum ‘tail’ (MAD 3: 308) (A) CiCaCuC
252. zibtum = zibtu ‘stone’ (MAD 3: 305) (G) CiCCuC
253. zibitum = zibitum, zibnatum ‘species’ (ePSD; MAD 3: 305 ‘a grain’) (G) CiCiCuC
254. zimtum = simdum ‘sort of flour ‘ (MAD 3: 239) (E) CiCCuC
255. ziktium = ziqtium ‘?’ (MAD 3: 310)
Substratum/Adstratum
256. aguhum (a2-gu4-hu-um) = aguhhu ‘girdle’ (MAD 3: 20; AHw: 17 ‘Scharpe, Gurtel’) (E) aCuCuC
257. allaharum = allaharum, alluharum ‘plant’ (MAD 3: 38; AHw: 38 ‘eine Paste fur Leder’) (G) aCCaCaCuC
258. kumul/gamul, gamun = kamunu ‘cumin’ (MAD 3: 147) (G) CuCuC, CaCuC
259. nurma = nurmu ‘pomegranate’ (MAD 3: 205; AHw: 804) (G) CuCCa
Dubia
260. serda (ser7-da) = sertu < nertu ‘misdeed, sin; punishment’ (ePSD) (L) CeCCa
Anlaut
Diphthongs: yu > u, ya > u Labial: p > b Dental: t > d Gutturals: k > g, q > k Sibilants: s > s
Inlaut
Vowels: i > e, i > i Labial: pp > b Dental: t > d, d > t Gutturals: kk > g Sibilants: s > z, y > z
Auslaut
num > lum, lum > num
Among the lemmata cited above dominated economic terms for bronze, copper, silver and wood, as well as textiles. Apparently, they were made by Akkadian- or Semitic speakers, products were run and their purpose understood without translation. At the second place are plants (especially, conifers). The third place occupy animals, including insects.
The most interesting case in the field of social terminology is the replacement of Sumerian unken ‘assembly’ for the Akkadian word puhru, adopted without change of its form. One can find a small
amount of borrowed abstract words. There were many terms in the Sumerian for monuments in which the inscription is made, as well as for the process of carving inscriptions, but the inscription as the text had no its own term and needed Akkadian mastaru. Another example is abstract notion of similarity. In the Sumerian even the equative case -gim formed from the Akkadian kima ‘just as’. Also known expression of identity -am3 ‘it is so’. But actual Sumerian designation of similarity is absent. In Ur III time appeared tamsilum ‘copy’ < masalu ‘to be like...’ Among the lemmata we could not find terms related to professions, law procedures, education. A number of terms remain without an accurate translation, even their reading in question now.
The Sumerian word serda (dated back to the Ur III period), as well as its connection with the Akkadian word sertu, still remain etymologically unclear. Both lexical units have the same meaning of ‘crime, punishment’ (ePSD). During many years, lexicographers have unsuccessfully tried to understand whether this word had been an Akkadism in Sumerian or vice versa. Since this word has occurred more often in the cuneiform writing of NIR.DA, which can be read as ser7-da, there are attempts to derive it from the Akkadian nertu ‘murder’ in the reading of nert /du (CDA: 368). However, W. von Soden offered to interpret nert /du as a borrowing from Sumerian (AHw: 780), without proposing any clear etymology of the Akkadian sertu (AHw: 1218). In the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, nert /du is absent, though sertu is marked as a lexical unit known since the Old Akkadian time and lacking its reliable etymology with the following meanings: ‘1. misdeed, offense, sin, guilt. 2. penalty, punishment’ (CAD S 2 : 324).
The least controversial reconstruction would be as follows. The Akkadian sertu was a variant of nertu, which emerged as a result of reading this sign as NIR (ser7). A combination of the signs NIR.DA, formerly read as ner-da, was later re-read as ser7-da, and then this artificial word was re-borrowed by the Akkadian language. Thus, an entire chain would look as follows: nertu > nerda > serda > sertu. Now, one needs to explain how and why the n shifted to the s. M. Civil explains it as a result of a transformation of the emegir-word from the male dialect into emesal-word in the female one, for which this particular kind of transitions (e.g., a-nir > a-ser ‘weeping’) is quite characteristic (Civil 1993 : 75).
III. Old Babylonian
Akkadian/Semitic Loanwords -0
261. buluh = palahu ‘to fear, tremble, be afraid’ (ePSD) (V) CuCuC
262. karam = karmu ‘heap, ruin mound’ (ePSD) (G) CaCaC (see above garan)
263. kurum = kurummatum, kurmatum ‘food ration’ (AHw: 513; ePSD) (E) CuCuC
264. masga’en = muskenu ‘Palasthoriger; Armer’ (AHw: 684);
‘dependant’ (ePSD) (P) CaCCaCeC
265. pahal (pa4-hal) = pahallu ‘leg’ (ePSD) (A) CaCaC
266. pahar ‘gathering’ < paharu ‘to gather’ (ePSD) (P) CaCaC
267. penzer = bissuru ‘female genitals’ (AHw: 131; ePSD) (A) CeCCeC
268. puzur = puzru ‘secret, magic protection’ (ePSD) (R) CuCuC
269. sikin/sikin = sikinnu ‘container for oils’ (AHw: 1233; ePSD) (E) CiCiC
270. su huz = suhuzu ‘to birn’ (ePSD) (V) CuCuC
271. su tubul/r ‘to mix’ = sutabulu ‘to mix’ (Infinitiv) or ‘mixed’ (ePSD) (V) CuCuCuC
272. urrub = urrumbu, hurhumbu ‘a vessel with knobs?’ (ePSD) (E) uCCuC
273. dugursub = ursuppu ‘a vessel with knobs?’ (ePSD) (E) uCCuC
274. zahal ‘disappearance’ = sahalu ‘to sieve, filter’ (ePSD) (Ab) CaCaC
275. zuhul ‘pierced’ = sahlu ‘to pass through a hole, to thread’ (ePSD) Part CuCuC
-a
276. anna = annu, anna, anni ‘approval; ‘indeed’ (AHw: 52; ePSD) (I) aCCa
277. badara (OB) ~ badar (Ur III) ~ pa2-tar2 (OAkk) < pattaru, patarru ‘dagger’ (AHw: 848; ePSD) (T) CaCaCa
278. harista = haristum ‘woman in labor’ (AHw: 326; ePSD) (M) N < Adj CaCiCCa
279. haza, hahaza ‘to hold, grasp; to retain’ (ePSD) = ahazu ‘to take, to hold’ (V) CaCa, CaCaCa280.
280. iskila = isqillatu ‘Flusskies(el)’ (AHw: 397); ‘pebble: a container’ (ePSD) (E) iCCiCa
281. kansasa, gansasa = muktassassu ‘overpowering’ (ePSD) Part CaCCaCa
282. ligidba = nikiptu ‘ein Euphorbia-Strauch’ (AHw: 788); ‘a medicinal plant’ (ePSD) (G) CiCiCCa
283. ne-ha < nehtu ‘calm, peace’ (AHw: 775; ePSD) (Ab) CeCa
284. udra ‘to be darkened’ = udduru (’dr) (ePSD) (V) uCCuCu
-i
285. eristi = ersum, eristum ‘wise’ (AHw: 246; ePSD) Adj eCiCCi
286. sanabi = sinipu ‘2/3’ (ePSD) Num CaCaCi
287. zi-bi, zibum ‘a form of caraway seed’ = zibu ‘black cumin’ (ePSD)
(G) CiCi, CiCuC
-u/um
288. abrusum = aprusu ‘eine Pflanze (nach DAB 233 Siderites?)’ (AHw:
61); ‘(a medical plant)’ (ePSD) (G) aCCuCuC
289. abulillum = bulilu ‘boxthorn berry’ (ePSD) (G) aCuCiCCuC
290. ajalum (a-ia10-lum) = ajalum ‘deer’ (AHw: 24; ePSD) (F) aCaCuC
291. akkanum = akkannu ‘wild donkey’ (AHw: 29; ePSD) (F) aCCaCuC
292. arazum = arasu ‘ein Ggst. aus Stein?’ (AHw: 66); ‘a container for salt?’ (ePSD) (E) aCaCuC
293. duga-ra-num2 = aranu ‘cashbox?’ (ePSD) (E) aCaCuC
294. dugarutum = arutu ‘clay pipe’ (AHw: 72; ePSD) (E) aCuCuC
295. askumbitum = asqumbittu, asqubitu ‘camel hump; hump’ (AHw: 75; ePSD) (A) aCCuCCiCuC
296. gisaslum (as4-lum) = aslu ‘measuring rod’ (AHw: 74; ePSD) (T) aCCuC
297. asbaltum = aspaltu ‘man of low social standing’ (AHw: 82; ePSD) (P) aCCaCCuC
298. ayartum = ayartu ‘white coral?’ (ePSD) (G) aCCaCCuC
299. bakirum ‘a carrying strap’ (ePSD) (T) CaCiCuC
300. bariratum = bariratum ‘(a plant, phps.) sagapenum’ (DAB: 359; AHw: 107; ePSD) (G) CaCiCaCuC
301. barutum = parutu ? ‘eine Art v. Kocher ?’ (AHw: 837); ‘a quiver or other leather item’ (ePSD) (T) CaCuCuC
302. tug2bazihum ‘textile’ (ePSD) (E) CaCiCuC
303. birtu = birtu ‘fort’ (AHw: 129; ePSD) (T) CiCCu
304. gisdinetum ‘a wooden object’ (ePSD) (E) CiCeCuC
305. dulum = dullum ‘duty, toil, misery’ (AHw: 175; ePSD) (R) CuCuC
306. emittum = ? ‘?’ (ePSD) eCiCCuC
307. ezizu = ezizzu ‘ein Gemuse’ (AHw: 270); ‘(an alliaceous vegetable)’ (ePSD) (G) eCiCu
308. gababum = k/gababum ‘shield’ (AHw; 414; ePSD) (T) CaCaCuC
309. gabaldu (gabal-du3) ‘to be hostile, to challenge’ = qablu ‘battle’ + du3 ‘to erect’ (ePSD) (V) CaCaCCu
310. garradum ‘warrior’ = qarradum ‘a hero’ (ePSD) (J) CaCCaCuC
311. hazbum = hasbum ‘Topferton; Scherbe’ (AHw: 332): ‘terracotta’
(ePSD) (G) CaCCuC
312. hiritum = hiritum ‘Graben’ (AHw: 348); ‘ditch’ (ePSD)
(G) CiCiCuC
313. hurum = ahurm ‘a younger child; social inferior’ (M) aCUCCu
314. u2hurium ‘plant’ (ePSD) (G) CuCiuC
315. hutpu = hutpu ‘arrowhead’ (AHw: 362; ePSD) (T) CuCCu
316. ibilu ‘utterance, saying, pronunciation’ (ePSD) (< apalu ‘to answer’?) (Ab) iCiCu
317. ilu = ilu ‘deity’ (R) iCu
318. urudimittu = imittu ‘spear’ (AHw: 377; ePSD) (T) iCiCCu
319. imittum ‘an item of jewelry’ = imittum ‘support, shoulder’ (ePSD) (T) iCiCCuC
320. kallu (ka(-al)-lu5) ‘a vessel, bowl’ = kallu (AHw: 426; ePSD) (E) CaCCu
321. kititum ‘a grade of wool’ = kititum ‘linen garment’ (AHw: 493; ePSD) (F) CiCiCuC
322. tug2kurum (ku-ru-um) ‘mourning clothes’ (ePSD) = kwum ‘mourning, depression’ (AHw: 512) (Ab) CuCuC
323. duglakbum = lakbum ‘a vessel’ (AHw: 529; ePSD) (E) CaCCuC
324. lalanu = lalanu ‘destitute person’ (AHw: 529; ePSD) Part CaCaCu
325. ligtum = liqtu ‘Gesammeltes’ (AHw: 555); ‘selection, gathered material’ (ePSD) (T) CiCCuC
326. lilibu ‘a leather object’ = lilibu, lilippu ‘a leather part of horse trappings’ (AHw: 552; ePSD) (E) CiCiCu
327. limum (ugula limum ‘foreman of 1000 men’) = limum ‘1000’ Num CiCuC
328. na4madanum ‘type of stone’ = madalum (AHw: 571; ePSD)
(G) CaCaCuC
329. malalum = malalum ‘wooden mortar’ (AHw: 594; ePSD)
(T) CaCaCuC
330. malgatum = malgatu ‘musical instrument from Malgium’ (ePSD) (T) CaCCaCuC
331. maktarumzabar = maqtarum ‘a metal item, perhaps censer’ (AHw: 608; ePSD) (T) CaCCaCuC
332. marguzum = margrnum ‘ein Harz-Busch’ (AHw: 611); ‘a resinous bush’ *ePSD) (G) CaCCuCuC
333. marsum = marsum ‘a bed’ (AHw: 613-614; ePSD) (E) CaCCuC
334. mashalum = mashalu ‘sieve’ (AHw: 625; ePSD) (E) CaCCaCuC
335. urudmasum ‘metal object’ (ePSD) (T) CaCuC
336. miktum ‘social class’ (Lipit-Ishtar XIV) < maqatu ‘to fall’ (CAD M 2: 105; ePSD) (P) CiCCuC
337. gismubum ‘type of tree’ (ePSD) (G) CuCuC
338. musirum“ ‘a bird’ (ePSD) (F) CuCiCuC
339. nagbu ‘spring; sources’ < naqbu (ePSD) (G) CaCCu
340. nakamtum = nakkamtu ‘storehouse’ (AHw: 721-722; ePSD) (E) CaCaCCuC
341. pagdu ‘expert’ = paqdu ‘entrusted, appointed official, expert’ (AHw: 826-827; ePSD) (P) CaCCu
342. dugpihu = pihu ‘beer cup’ (AHw, 862; ePSD) (E) CiCu
343. rabianum = rabianum ‘commander, a high official’ (ePSD) (P) CaCiaCuC
344. rabizigatum = rabi sikkati ‘an official (literally, ‘a lord of peg’)’ (ePSD) (P) CaCiCiCaCuC
345. sekrum = sekretum ‘enclosed woman’ (AHw: 1036; ePSD) (M) CeCCuC
346. silum = silum ‘Vertiefung’ (AHw: 1237); ‘depression ?’ (ePSD) (Ab) CiCuC
347. siktum = siqdu ‘almond-tree’ (ePSD) (G) CiCCuC
348. subtum ‘dwelling’ = subtum (E) CuCCuC
349. sulalum ‘punishment’ = salalu ‘to plunder, to deprive’ (Ab) CuCaCuC
350. surum ‘to sprinkle oil’ = zam ‘to winnow, scatter’ (CDA, 445; ePSD) (V) CuCuC
351. talium ‘vegetable’ (ePSD) (G) CaCiuC
352. umamu = umamu ‘animal, beasts’ (ePSD) (F) uCaCu
353. na4unitum = unitu ‘a stone’ (ePSD) (G) uCiCuC
354. na4urbitum = urbitu ‘a stone’ (ePSD) (G) uCCiCuC
355. gisurnum = urnu ‘small cedar’(ePSD) (G) uCCuC
356. na4usium ‘stone’ (ePSD) (G) uCiuC
357. utuplu = utuplu ‘scarf, shawl?’ (ePSD) (E) uCuCCu
358. zahirum = sahiru ‘shoe straps?’ (ePSD) (E) CaCiCuC
359. zapitumusen = sapitu ‘a bird’(ePSD) (F) CaCiCu
360. zarrastum, zariastum = zarrastum ‘a plant’ (ePSD) (G) CaCCaCCuC
361. zikru ‘name, mention’ = zikru ‘utterance, name’ (ePSD) (Ab) CiCCu
362. zizanu = zizanu ‘cricket’ (ePSD) (F) CiCaCu
Substratum/Adstratum
363. imduruna, imti-nu-ur = timru ‘clay oven’ (AHw: 1360; ePSD) (T) CuCuCa, CiCuC
364. harub = hamp/bu ‘Johannisbrot’ (AHw: 329); ‘carob (tree)’ (ePSD)
(G) CaCuC
365. nigib (ni-gi4-ib2) = nikiptu ‘spurge’ (AHw: 788; ePSD) (G) CiCiC
366. saman ‘tethering rope’ = summannu ‘halter, tether’ (AHw: 1273; ePSD)
367. susum = srnu ‘licorice’ (ePSD) (G) CuCuC
368. yarahi (a-a-ra-hi) = yarahhu ‘a kind of good quality grain’ (ePSD) (E) CaCaCi
369. giszamrutum, zamirtum, zamritum, zaritum, saridu = azmaru ‘lance’ (ePSD) (T) CaCCiCuC
Anlaut
Vowels: a > 0 Labial: p > b, b > p Dental: t > d Gutturals: k > g, q > k Sibilants: s > z, z > s, s > z Nasal: n > l
Inlaut
Vowels: i > e, i > i Labial: pp > b Dental: t > d, d > t Gutturals: kk > g, q > g Sibilants: ss > nz, s > z, s > z
Auslaut
u > i u > um um > a mb > b
num > lum, lum > num
The repertory of borrowings is extremely diverse. One may note a presence of many names for plants (especially conifers), animals, minerals, weapons and everyday objects. The number of social and professional terms, as well as of religious and cultural categories, is relatively small. However, the fact that some abstract nouns, expressing psychological conditions associated with fatigue, suffering and depression, were borrowed from the Akkadian language is quite remarkable, for there are no terms of this sort in the Sumerian one. Another interesting feature was the borrowing of many verbs (a lot more than during any previous periods). In some cases, verbs borrowed from the Akkadian language adopted the forms of composite Sumerian verbs: for example, in su huz < suhuzu, su tubul / r ‘to mix’ < sutabulu, the first element is formed by a noun su ‘hand’, whereas the second verb-like element had no homonyms in the Sumerian language and was meaningless. One could also assume that the old-Sumerian verb hu-luh (ha-luh, ha-ha-luh) ‘to fear, to tremble, to be afraid’, whose first part varies and the second one reminds the verb luh ‘to clean, to wash’ (semantically irrelevant in
this case), is actually the earliest version of an Akkadian loanword from the verb palahu ‘to fear’ (the Old Babylonian buluh (bu-luh)). It very well might be that, for the sake of an onomatopoetic imitation of trembling, the Anlaut form of the verb had adopted the sounding of its Auslaut.
Preliminary Results
As a result of our study based on evidence of three hypertext databases of the Sumerian language (ePSD, CDLI, ETCSL), 369 Akkadian loanwords of the Sumerian period from Fara and Abu-Salabikh till the time of Hammurabi (the 26th-18th centuries BC) have been revealed. The preliminary results referred to the semantic and grammatical groups are as follows: 334 nouns, 12 verbs, 8 adjectives, 9 participles, 2 numerals, 1 conjunction, 1 interjection and 1 case indicator. Recently made assumptions about the relationship between the Sumerian pronoun 3Sg masc. -am3 and the Akkadian enclitic -ma (Karahashi 2008: 85-91) require a separate discussion.
Each era of the Mesopotamian history led to a necessity to borrow some very particular terms. Thus, during the Old Sumerian and Sargonic periods, it was mainly business, legal, and religious terms, as well as titles, that had been borrowed. During the time of the Third Dynasty of Ur, economic terms for bronze, copper, silver, wood and textiles used to dominate. During the Old Babylonian period, a significant portion of the loanwords included the names of plants, animals and minerals; however, economic and technical terms had still been dominating.
All selected Akkadian borrowing is to be divided into five groups according to the way of borrowing: a) full borrowing forms and meanings (puhrum < puhrum ‘assembly’); b) change in form and conservation of meaning (mada < matu ‘country’); c) change in form and meaning (piluda ‘ritual order’ < belutu ‘power’); d) derivation of the Sumerian compound word from Sumerian and Akkadian simple words (ni3-gi-na ‘truth’ < ni3 ‘thing’ + gi-na (< ken) ‘constant’); e) derivation of a compound Sumerian word from one simple Akkadian word (su d/tubul < sutabulu ‘mix’ ).
Semantic groups
Anatomy (A): 2 Abstract words (Ab): 11 Kinship (K): 5 Economics (E): 105 Law (L): 3
Technics (T): 44 Politics (P): 27 Religion (R): 21
Geography and minerals (G): 74 Fauna (F): 24 Man (M): 8 Job (J): 4
Unknown meaning: 7
Grammatical groups
Verb (V) - 12 Adjective (Adj) - 8 Participle (Part) - 9 Conjunction (C) - 1 Interjection (I) - 1 Numerals (Num) - 2 Case - 1
Abbreviations
Gudea - the Second dynasty of Lagash (XXII-XXI B.C.), OAkk - Old Akkadian (XXIV-XXII), OB - Old Babylonian (XX-XVI), OS - Old Sumerian (XXVII-XXIV), Ur III - the Third dynasty of Ur (XXI).
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V. V. Emelianov. Akkadian loanwords in Sumerian revised
The article contains revised and corrected results of the author’s papers previously published in Russian. It devoted to the problem of Akkadian loanwords in Sumerian and discusses morphological, semantic and grammatical classification of 369 Sumerian lemmata.
Keywords: Sumerian language, Akkadian language, Akkadian loanwords in Sumerian, Sumerian etymology, Sumerian Weltanschauung.
