CC BY
3
УДК 69
doi: 10.48612/dnitii/2024_52_90-99
A REVIEW ON FIRE-RESISTANCE OF CONCRETES AND THE AFFECTING FACTORS
Yu. А. А. Al-Muradi A. V. Kotlyarevskaya Q. A. A. Qais
RUDN University named after Patrice Lumumba, Moscow
Abstract
Concrete deteriorates considerably when exposed to aggressive environments such as fire or elevated temperatures. The addition of certain materials obtained from agricultural and industrial wastes to concrete could improve its performance in this environment. The aim of this study is to provide more understand of what influences the fire resistance ability of concrete. The objective of this study is to identify and explain the factors that affect the fire resistance of concrete. This will enable constructors and engineers to utilize the concrete aggregates where they will be functional to the maximum. This study reviewed the study of previous researchers to provide more understanding of the topic. It was understood that concrete aggregates play a functional role in concrete properties and improve the existing fire resistance property of concrete.
Introduction
Portland cement and water are mixed with sand, gravel, crushed stone, or other inert ingredients like vermiculite or expanded slag to create concrete, which is used in buildings. Aggregate is a key component of concrete and can be artificially made from steel shot, broken brick, and blast furnace slag, or naturally occurring from gravel or crushed rock combined with sand. The binder is an additional component that keeps the aggregate particles in place so that concrete may be formed. The byproduct of cement hydration, or the chemical interaction between cement and water, is a commonly used binder (Neville and Brooks, 2002) [1]. To alter certain of the qualities of the concrete, additives or admixtures can be added to the concrete mix.
Worldwide, admixtures of minerals to concrete are widely employed for economic, ecological, and performance-related reasons. Aside from Portland cement, the most often utilized cementitious elements as components of concrete include fly ash, pulverized granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume, and rice husk ash. In addition to their various technological advantages, they preserve resources and save energy (Arioz, 2007) [2]. One recent addition to the list of pozzolanic materials is metakaolin. More intensive research should be conducted to determine how the admixture will affect the properties of the concrete to be made with the specified
Keywords
Дефекты и повреждения, сегментация изображений, кластеризация изображений, компьютерное зрение в строительстве.
Date of receipt in edition
24.10.2024
Date of acceptance for printing
25.10.2024
job materials, under the anticipated ambient conditions, and by the anticipated construction procedures ASTM C 494 [3]. All admixtures used in the construction of concrete must meet specifications.
One of the materials that resists fire the best in the building sector is concrete. There are three main reasons why concrete has been ranked among the most fire-resistant materials; concrete is non-combustible, non-toxic, and has low thermal conductivity. This means that it does not transfer heat energy or react easily with other substances (meaning that in the event of a fire, no harmful gases are released). This makes concrete one of the safest and most effective materials for fire protection (understanding of concrete fire resistance | CLM FireProofing, 2020) [4]. The maximum degree of fire resistance, A1, is assigned to it by European Standards (BS EN 13501-1: 2018 - TC)[5].
The fire resistance of concrete is measured by the bearing capacity of concrete at high temperatures, its resistance to flame penetration, and its resistance to heat transfer. Fire usually produces high-temperature gradients within the material, which results in the tendency of the hotter surface layer to separate and spall from the cooler interior (Castillo and Duranni, 1990; Khoury, 2000) [6, 7]. Structural concrete must have adequate fire resistance, as expressed by its ability to maintain its structural integrity for the required period.
In 1999, the World Fire Statistics Center, in a study of 16 developed countries, announced that the annual death toll from fire is 1 - 2 per 100,000 population, and the total cost of fire damage is 0.2 - 0.3% of Gross National Product (GNP) (Ilangovan, Mahendran, & Nagamanib, 2010; Khoury, 2000) [8, 7]. Many studies have shown that the reaction of concrete to high temperatures and its fire resistance depends heavily on the type of aggregate used: if the aggregate does not contain silica, the loss of strength is significantly less. David and Kamira (2008) [9], in a study on the effect of elevated temperatures on compressive strength (fc ) of concrete made with three different coarse aggregates, concluded that the strength of concrete containing siliceous aggregates begins to decrease at about 800 °F and decreases by about 55 ° F (at 1200° F).
Concrete is well known for its ability to withstand high temperatures and fire due to its low thermal conductivity and high specific heat capacity (Arioz, 2007; Bamonte et al., 2008) [2, 10], this does not mean that fire and high temperatures do not affect concrete. Characteristics such as color, fc , elasticity, concrete density, surface exterior, etc. are affected by high temperatures (DU, 2008; Morsy et al. 2009) [11, 12]. Therefore, improving concrete's fire resistance has recently been an interesting area for many researchers. Previous studies have shown that the fire resistance of concrete can be improved in several ways, with the replacement of cement with pozzolanic materials being one of the most effective methods (Demirboga, 2007) [13]. It is also noted that adding polypropylene fibers and basalt fibers to the concrete mixture is useful (Chiadighikaobi et al., 2019; Chidighikaobi, 2019; Xiaoa, 2006) [14, 15, 16]. However, the main attribution of the thermal properties of concrete is provided by Shetty Units (2005) [17]. The fire resistance of concrete largely depends on its constituent materials, especially pozzolans. The effect of fire or high temperature on concrete containing carbide waste (CW) has not been fully investigated.
Spalling is one of the major problems facing concrete structures subjected to elevated degrees of temperature. During exposure to fire, free and combined water inside the concrete start to evaporate and form pore pressure. This pressure builds up and creates stresses in the internal structure of the concrete elements. As the fire continues, the induced stresses gradually increase beyond the tensile strength of the concrete, resulting in small and sometimes large amounts of concrete spalling off the surface, known as cracking (Kalifa et al., 2000) [18]. As a result, the fire can easily move to the concrete nucleus and create more pores related to large amounts of internal reinforcements (Chan et al., 2000) [19]. According to the negative results mentioned, the link between the specific trunk and the reinforcement bars decreases significantly (Ali et al., 2001) [20]. As a result, differential thermal expansion occurs between the concrete and the reinforcing steel, also severe damage occurs in the joints and connections between different structural members.
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The fire resistance of concrete refers to its ability to withstand fire. Fire resistance is one of the most important aspects when considering the service life of a structure. Fire risks become an inevitable incident in this very dependent world (Shijagurumayum & Suresh, 2019) [21]. About 60 % to 70 % of the concrete volume is engaged by aggregates. The accumulated pressure invites constraints. When the power rises, the induction restraint gradually increases to the limit that exceeds the resistance of concrete traction, and most of the time falls from the concrete surface known by the name of the scaler (McNameee, 2013) [22].
The computer simulation research in high-strength concrete walls (Figure 1) with just one side exposed to fire by Ongah, Mendis, and Sanjayan (2002) [23] is shown to illustrate the behavior of the temperature field evolution as a function of time in a concrete element. Using a heat flow model to numerically simulate the fire scenario, the figure shows the large temperature
Fig. 1. Temperature field evolution in a high-strength concrete wall as a function of fire exposure time (Ongah, 2002)[23]
Though concrete is resistant to fire, this varies. There are many factors affecting the fire resistance of concrete. The aim of this study is to provide more understand of what influences the ability of concrete to resist or withstand fire. To achieve this aim, the objective of this study is to identify and explain the factors that affect the fire resistance of concrete.
Methodology
This study uses a qualitative analysis. It reviews the study of previous authors on related works to bring more knowledge to the audience.
Factors Affecting Concrete's Fire Resistance
Aggregate type
The type of aggregate used in concrete can affect its fire protection. Three types of aggregates are typically used in the manufacture of concrete: carbonate, siliceous, and lightweight coarse aggregate. Although all types of aggregates are effective against fire, research has shown that carbonated aggregates are the most effective; in
experiments, dolomite (calcium carbonate) provided the highest fc and tensile strength (fts ) when exposed to high temperatures. Depending on the type of aggregate, the loss of concrete strength is greater at temperatures above 450 - 600 °C. When concrete is exposed to fire, water starts evaporating, generating pore pressure (Yumkham, Shijagurumayum & Suresh, 2022) [24]. Compared to traditional aggregates, concrete composed of carbonate aggregates transfers less heat for the same thickness. Carbon aggregates improve the fire resistance of concrete (Tufail et. al., 2017) [25].
Aggregates obtained from igneous rocks (granite, dacite, diopside, diorite, adensite, gabala, basalt, diabase), which contain the mineral quartz, are generally characterized by good resistance to high temperatures, although this circumstance does not have a significant impact, taking into account the fine-grained structure with well-dispersed mineralization and the relatively low quartz content (the mineral quartz has a significantly higher coefficient of thermal expansion than other mineral components of igneous rocks) (Muravlev, 2000) [26].
From the point of view of fire resistance, the least favorable aggregates are obtained from rocks of meta-morphic origin, mainly quartzites, which are considered the most important mineral hard rocks under conditions of intense heating, especially due to their high quartz content (quartzite is a monomineral rock composed almost entirely of the quartz mineral SiO2 , more than 98%), at high temperatures (above 500 °C), signs of deterioration, i.e. cracks, appear. That is, at a temperature of 50 °C, quartz increases its volume by 0.17 %, and the maximum expansion occurs in the temperature range of 573 °C when the so-called polymorphic transformation from a-quartz to high-temperature ^-quartz (Bilbija and Matovic, 2009)[27].
Experimental studies carried out on concrete made with aggregates of different origins have shown that prolonged exposure of concrete to temperatures of 250 °C does not adversely affect the durability of concrete made with limestone aggregates, especially dolomite aggregates, but for concrete containing quartz aggregates, the critical temperature is around 100 °C (Broceta et. al., 2016) [28]. Furthermore, Sanket et al. (2016) [29] experimented on the performance of concrete during fire exposure. The results of different parameters, such as aggregate type and exposure time, including condition and temperature, were investigated. It was observed that in temperatures above 300 °C, petty cracks are made through the material, and mechanical strength and thermal conductivity were set up to slowly degrade. At 550°C dehydration takes place. At this temperature, aggregates were found to be deteriorate which leads to shrinkage of concrete.
Moisture content
The moisture content of concrete affects its behavior in a fire. Research has shown that cracks can develop on the surface of concrete that is not sufficiently dry or has a very low water /cement ratio.
It was suggested that concretes with compressive strengths higher than 55 MPa are susceptible to spalling (figure 2) and have lower fire resistance (Chan, Peng & Anson, 1999) [30]. This could be attributed to the reduced permeability associated with the high-strength concrete which hinders the release of the internal pore pressure and eventually causes concrete spalling. The moisture content of concrete samples expressed in terms of Relative Humidity (RH) also influences the extent of spalling, the higher the RH, the greater the spalling will be, and vice versa (Chan, Peng & Anson, 1999; Nassif et al., 1995) [30, 31]. When lightweight aggregate was utilized, the amount of spalling was shown to be significantly larger. This is because, when exposed to fire, lightweight aggregate with greater free moisture produces a higher vapor pressure (Nassif et al., 1995) [31]. Concrete spalling will increase with increasing fire intensity and heating rate. Additionally, it was proposed that high-strength concrete components under load would spall more than those under load because the load increases the strains already caused by the vapor pressure of the evaporating water (Chan, Peng & Anson, 1999; Nassif et al., 1995) [30, 31].
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Fig. 2. Spalling of concrete due to moisture penetration during a fire test
Explosive spalling is considered a concrete catastrophic failure, that generally occurs during the early stages of fire, when concrete reaches temperatures up to 300 °C (Khoury and Anderberg, 2000) [32]. The material explosively brakes into pieces, often without advance notice (Kodur, 2000) [33]. This phenomenon is strongly related to the initial pore saturation and moisture migration in concrete. When the temperature increases, the free water in the pores will expand, while increasing the saturated vapor pressure. The continuous expansion of water, together with the moisture migration, frequently leads to a physical saturation of the pores. Further heating will then generate additional strains in the pores and can lead to cracking and hydraulic fracture of the solid skeleton (Khoylou & England, 1997) [34]. A review of the literature indicates that explosive spalling is a result of a combination of two effects: the build-up of pore pressure by vaporization and moisture transport and thermal stresses and external loads in concrete (Dwaikat & Kodur, 2009; Khoury, 2000) [35, 7].
High temperatures also affect the mechanical properties of HSC due to irreversible physical and chemical changes that happen in the material during the heating process (Georgali & Tsakiridis, 2005; Short, Purkiss, & Guise, 2001) [36, 37]. Also, it was observed that the degree of deterioration in the properties was considerably worse if moisture was retained in the concrete during heating. Hence, the influence of heat exposure on the properties is critically dependent on the moisture content of concrete. However, there is a lack of information in the literature about the effect of moisture content on the properties of concrete at high temperatures. Data from Lankard (1971) [38] showed that the compressive strength is reduced substantially if moisture is kept inside the test sample. According to Lau & Anson (2006) [39], there is a relationship between compressive strength and initial pore saturation after heating. A slight reduction in compressive strength was observed as the initial pore saturation increased, i.e., concrete specimens with higher moisture lead to a slightly lower strength. The authors attributed the strength loss to internal pressure effects in the pores. Li et al. (2004) [40] investigated the influence of temperature, water content, specimen size, strength grade, and temperature profiles on the mechanical properties of normal-strength concrete (NSC) and high-strength concrete (HSC) after high temperature. The compressive strength of concrete after it was heated to 800 °C was tested in three levels of water content: specimens heated to constant weight until 105 °C before the fire, ordinary specimens, and specimens immersed in water for 48h before the fire.
Density
The thickness of the concrete utilized moreover impacts the fire thickness of the concrete building structure. For the most part talking, concretes with lower unit weights have a more prominent fire resistance. This implies that dried, lightweight concrete structures, such as those made from lightweight squares are outstandingly safe to fire (Cooper, 2022) [41]. The more noteworthy the thickness of concrete, the higher its fire resistance. The greater the density of concrete, the higher its fire resistance. A study by the University of Auckland, New Zealand, found that the fire resistance of ultra-lightweight concrete with a density of 400 kgm3 was more than three times that of other concrete samples with a density of 150 kgm3.
Thickness
Density and thickness can often be confused when used to describe the properties of construction materials, however, their meanings are very distinct. Density refers to the volume and compactness of the material, whilst thickness is a more specific measurement of the concrete's dimensions. This thickness will also be largely influenced by the aggregates used in the concrete. The thicker the concrete, the more resistant it will be when exposed to fire (Cooper, 2022) [41]. Generally speaking, thicker concrete performs better when exposed to fire. The American Society of Civil Engineers has laid out the minimum thickness of different types of concrete ^ (based on aggregates used) for varying levels of fire resistance; a siliceous aggregate of 7.0 inches thickness, for j instance, can withstand fire for up to 4 hours, while a lightweight aggregate (clay, shale, or slate) only needs to be 5.1 inches in thickness to endure the same length of time. CQ
Results
The results from previous studies earlier discussed have been summarized in table 1. Different aggregates were used by many researchers to produce concrete.
Table 1
Summary of the results from previous studies
References Aggregates Results
Yumkham, Shijagurumayum & Suresh (2022) [24] Carbonate, siliceous, and lightweight coarse aggregate Calcium carbonate provided the highest fc and fts when exposed to high temperatures.
Tufail et. al. (2017) [25] Carbonate aggregates Transfers less heat for the same thickness and improves the fire resistance of concrete.
Broceta et. al. (2016) [28] Dolomite aggregates Prolonged exposure of concrete to temperatures of 250 °C does not adversely affect the durability of concrete made with limestone aggregates, especially dolomite aggregates.
Broceta et al. (2016) [28] Quartz aggregates The critical temperature is around 100 °C.
Sanket et al. (2016) [29] Siliceous aggregates It was observed that in temperatures above 300 °C, petty cracks are made through the material, and mechanical strength and thermal conductivity were set up to be slowly degraded.
Nassif et al. (1995) [31] Lightweight aggregate The extent of spalling was found to be much greater when lightweight aggregate was used. This is because lightweight aggregate contains more free moisture which creates higher vapor pressure under fire exposure.
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Conclusion
This study concludes that to produce a higher fire-resistance concrete, it is important to identify the aggregates and additives that have properties that withstand higher temperatures. Most researchers have analyzed different materials that have the ability to improve the fire resistance strength of concrete but research on the use of fibrous materials is limited.
References
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ОБЗОР ОГНЕСТОЙКОСТИ БЕТОНОВ И ВЛИЯЮЩИХ НА НЕЕ ФАКТОРОВ
Ю. А. А. Аль-Муради А. В. Котляревская К. А. А. Кайс
Российский университет дружбы народов имени Патриса Лумумбы, г. Москва
Аннотация
Бетон значительно разрушается под воздействием агрессивных сред, таких как огонь или повышенные температуры. Добавление некоторых материалов, полученных из сельскохозяйственных и промышленных отходов, в бетон может улучшить его характеристики в этой среде. Целью данного исследования является более глубокое понимание того, что влияет на огнестойкость бетона. Задача данного исследования — выявить и объяснить факторы, влияющие на огнестойкость бетона. Это позволит строителям и инженерам использовать заполни-
Ключевые слова
Высокотемпературный, огнестойкий бетон, легкий бетон, добавки для бетона, заполнители для бетона.
тели бетона по максимуму. В данном исследовании был проведен обзор Дата поступления в редакцию
работ предыдущих исследователей, чтобы обеспечить более глубокое 24.10.2024
понимание темы. Было установлено, что заполнители играют функци- Дата принятия к печати
ональную роль в свойствах бетона и улучшают существующие свойства 25.10.2024 огнестойкости бетона.
Ссылка для цитирования:
Yu. А. А. Al-Muradi, A. V. Kotlyarevskaya, Q. A. A. Qais. A review on fire-resistance of concretes and the affecting factors. — Системные технологии. — 2024. — № 3 (52). — С. 90 - 99.
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